Segregation academies are private schools in the Southern United States that were founded in the mid-20th century by white parents to avoid having their children attend integrated public schools. They were founded between 1954, when the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that segregated public schools were unconstitutional,[1][2] and 1976, when the court ruled similarly about private schools.

While many of these schools still exist – most with low percentages of minority students even today – they may not legally discriminate against students or prospective students based on any considerations of religion, race or ethnicity that serve to exclude non-white students. The laws that permitted their racially-discriminatory operation, including government subsidies and tax exemption, were invalidated by U.S. Supreme Court decisions. After Runyon v. McCrary (1976), all of these private schools were forced to accept African-American students. As a result, segregation academies changed their admission policies, ceased operations, or merged with other private schools.

Most of these schools remain overwhelmingly white institutions, both because of their founding ethos and because tuition fees are a barrier to entry. In communities where many or most white students are sent to these private schools, the percentages of African-American students in tuition-free public schools are correspondingly elevated. For example, in Clarksdale, Mississippi, in 2010, 92% of the students at Lee Academy were white, while 92% of the students at Clarksdale High School were black.[3] The effects of this de facto racial segregation are compounded by the unequal quality of education produced in communities where whites served by former segregation academies seek to minimize tax levies for public schools.

History

The first segregation academies were created by white parents in the late 1950s in response to the U.S. Supreme Court ruling in Brown v. Board of Education (1954),[4] which required public school boards to eliminate segregation "with all deliberate speed" (Brown II). At the time, segregation under Jim Crow laws was still widely enforced in the South, where most adult blacks were still disfranchised and excluded from politics.[5][6] The Brown ruling did not apply to private schools,[7] so founding new academies gave white parents a way to continue to educate their children separately from blacks.[8] In Virginia, the "massive resistance" campaign led Prince Edward County to close its public schools from 1959 to 1964; the only education in the county was a segregation academy, funded by state "tuition grants".

From 1950 to 1958, the South's private school enrollment increased by more than 250,000 students; by 1965, nearly one million Southern students attended private schools. "This growth was catalyzed by Southern state legislatures, who enacted as many as 450 laws and resolutions between 1954 and 1964 attempting to block, postpone, limit, or evade the desegregation of public schools, many of which expressly authorized the systematic transfer of public assets and monies to private schools...While none of the new laws specifically mentioned 'race' or racial segregation, each had the effect of obstructing Black students from attending all-White public schools."[9]

The underwriting of private schools undermined public schools. "What is notable is that taxpayer dollars financed these all-white schools at the cost of simultaneously creating poorly funded all-black public-school systems in the South. To put it simply, as the financial drain of taxpayer dollars from whites attending segregation academies decimated school systems educating black children, black communities, students and teachers paid a terribly high price to ensure that whites were educated with other whites," segregation researcher Noliwe Rooks wrote in 2018.[10]

A 1972 report on school desegregation noted that segregation academies could usually be identified by the word "Christian" or "church" in the school's name.[11] The report observed that while individual Protestant churches were often deeply involved in the establishment of segregation academies, Catholic dioceses often indicated that their schools were not meant to be havens from desegregation, which was buttressed by the reputation Catholic schools had in offering free or reduced tuition to children of color in order to afford them a parochial education.[11] Many segregation academies claimed they were established to provide a "Christian education", but the sociologist Jennifer Dyer has argued that such claims were simply a "guise" for the schools' actual objective of allowing parents to avoid enrolling their children in racially integrated public schools.[12][13]

Reasons why whites pulled their children out of public schools have been debated: whites insisted that "quality fueled their exodus", and blacks said "white parents refused to allow their children to be schooled alongside blacks".[14] Scholars estimate that, across the nation, at least half a million white students were withdrawn from public schools between 1964 and 1975 to avoid mandatory desegregation.[5] In the 21st century, Archie Douglas, the headmaster of Montgomery Academy (founded as a segregation academy), said that he is sure "that those who resented the Civil Rights Movement or sought to get away from it took refuge in the academy".[15] As of 2014, the student body of The Montgomery Academy was 10% percent non-white.[16][17]

IRS involvement and definitions

In 1969, parents of Mississippi black children brought suit to revoke tax-exemption status for non-profit segregation academies (Green v. Connally).[18] They won a temporary injunction in the D.C. Circuit in early 1970 and the suit in June 1971. The United States government appealed to the Supreme Court, where the lower court's decision was summarily affirmed in Coit v. Green (1971). Meanwhile, on July 10, 1970, the Internal Revenue Service announced it could "no longer legally justify allowing tax-exempt status to private schools which practice racial discrimination."[19] For a school to get or keep its tax-exempt status, it would have to publish a policy of non-discrimination and not practice overt discrimination. Many schools simply refused to comply. In the 1980s, Southern Republican Members of Congress, such as Trent Lott and Strom Thurmond, began to pressure the Reagan administration to halt revocation of tax-exempt status from segregation academies. In 1982, during congressional debate on the Voting Rights Act Amendments of 1982, the administration considered support for such a policy, leading to what one of its aides called "our worst public-relations and political disaster yet."[20]

A decade later, similarly aggrieved appellees argued once again in Allen v. Wright (1983) that the standards were too low. The appellees had asserted that "there are more than 3,500 racially segregated private academies operating in the country having a total enrollment of more than 750,000 children."[21] The court considered whether the parents had standing to sue, and concluded not, because they did not allege that they or their children had applied to, been discouraged from applying to, or been denied admission to any private school or schools.[22] Specifically, it ruled that citizens do not have standing to sue a federal government agency based on the influence that the agency's determinations might have on third parties (such as private schools). The judges noted the parents were in the posture of disappointed observers of the governmental process. The IRS would continue to enforce the regulations it had promulgated in 1970. Any school that was not tax-exempt in this period was likely a segregation academy, the standard for non-discrimination being low.[23] Not many of the 3,500 appear in lists, if there were 3,500. After 1983, any school named in a judgement or IRS document in this period absolutely was.[24] Many schools did not regain tax-exempt status until the 1990s.

By state

Virginia was the first state to respond to Brown by establishing and funding segregation academies. By 1970, four other states—Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, and South Carolina—had defied the court's decision in Brown.[25] Between 1961 and 1971, non-Catholic Christian schools doubled their enrollments nationally.[26] By 1969, 300,000 of 7,400,000 white students attended segregated school in eleven southern states.[27] Segregated private schools lost their tax-exempt status in Coit v. Green (1971). Virginia was also the first to be told in federal court that segregation academies were unconstitutional (Runyon v. McCrary (1976)), leading to their decline.[28]

Virginia

In Virginia, segregation academies were part of a policy of massive resistance declared by U.S. Senator Harry F. Byrd, Sr. He worked to unite other white Virginia politicians and leaders in taking action to prevent school desegregation after the Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court ruling in 1954.

In its September/October 1956 special session, the Virginia General Assembly passed a series of laws known as the Stanley Plan to implement massive resistance. In January, Virginia's voters had approved an amendment to the state constitution to allow tuition grants to parents enrolling their children in private schools. Part of the Stanley Plan established tuition grants program, which allowed parents who refused to allow their children to attend desegregated schools funding so each could attend a private school of choice. In practice, this meant state support of newly established all-white private schools which became known as "segregation academies".

On February 18, 1958, the General Assembly passed (and Governor Almond signed) additional legislation protecting segregation, what the Byrd Organization called the "Little Rock Bill" (responding to President Eisenhower's use of federal powers to assist the court-ordered desegregation of schools in Little Rock, Arkansas).[29] Since new segregation academy facilities often failed to meet construction, health and safety standards for public schools, these were also loosened.

Segregation academies opened in various Virginia cities and counties subject to desegregation lawsuits, including Arlington, Charlottesville and Norfolk where Governor Almond had ordered the schools closed rather than comply with federal court orders to desegregate.[30] Arlington and Norfolk desegregated peacefully in February 1959. In Arlington, many (if not most) white students remained in the desegregated schools. However, that was not the case in Norfolk and other areas, such as Richmond, where whites largely abandoned the public schools for segregation academies and other private schools, home schooling, or moved to predominately white suburbs outside the city limits. Today [when?], more than a half-century after school desegregation, largely due to white flight, the Richmond City and Norfolk Public Schools are the school divisions with the most racially and economically isolated schools in Virginia.[31]

Segregation academies in Warren and Prince Edward counties and the city of Norfolk are discussed below, as examples of why even in the fall of 1963, only 3,700 black pupils or 1.6% attended school with whites. NAACP litigation had resulted in some desegregation by the fall of 1960 in eleven localities, and the number of at least partially desegregated districts had slowly risen to 20 in the fall of 1961, 29 in the fall of 1962, and 55 (out of 130 school districts) in 1963.[32]

Warren County also planned to integrate its only high school, Warren County High School, but Governor Almond closed the school (along with schools in Charlottesville and Norfolk) in the fall of 1958. Education continued in private and church facilities for that school year. By the fall of 1959, the John S. Mosby Academy (1-12) was constructed and opened as an all-white school. A public high school for black students was built and opened (Criser High School), and Warren County High School reopened with a significantly reduced white student population and 22 black students. Criser operated until 1966, and Mosby operated through the 1968–69 school year.

When faced with an order to integrate, Prince Edward County closed its entire school system in September 1959, and kept county schools closed until 1964, as it kept litigating (although Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County had been a companion case to Brown). The newly founded private Prince Edward Academy operated as the de facto school system for white students. It enrolled K-12 students at several facilities throughout the county. Many black students were forced to move in with relatives in other counties, attend makeshift schools in church basements, or move to northern states to live with host families through a program of the Society of Friends in order to gain education. Even after public schools re-opened, Prince Edward Academy remained segregated as discussed below.

In Norfolk, churches and other organizations offered classes, teachers from the shuttered public schools formed tutorial groups, and classes were also held in private homes. The Norfolk Division of the College of William & Mary (now Old Dominion University) provided classes for some high school students. Other students from Norfolk attended schools in the neighboring cities of Hampton, Chesapeake, Virginia Beach and Portsmouth. Some parents sent their children to live with relatives in other parts of Virginia or in other states. The Defenders of State Sovereignty and Individual Liberties founded the Tidewater Educational Foundation to create a private school for white students in Norfolk. The Tidewater Academy opened as a segregation academy on October 22, 1958, with 250 white students with classes meeting in local churches.[citation needed]

Although on January 19, 1959, the Virginia Supreme Court of Appeals struck down the new Virginia law that closed schools before integration, as contrary to a public schooling provision in the state constitution (and a three-judge federal panel struck down other provisions of the Stanley Plan on the same day, (the Virginia state holiday honoring Robert E. Lee and Stonewall Jackson),[33] individual state tuition grants to parents continued, allowing them to patronize segregation academies.

In 1964, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled in Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward County that Virginia's tuition grants where the public schools had been closed for reasons of race (such as in Prince Edward County) violated the U.S. Constitution.[34] This decision finally effectively ended massive resistance within state governments, and dealt some segregation academies a fatal blow. Later rulings put the academies' tax exemption status in jeopardy if they practiced racial discrimination.[35]

In 1978, Prince Edward Academy lost its tax exempt status. In 1986, it changed its admission policy to allow black students to attend but few black students can afford the tuition to attend the school, which today is known as the Fuqua School. All other Virginia segregation academies have either closed, adopted non-racial discrimination policies, or merged with other schools that already had non-discrimination policies in place. Because the Catholic Church had desegregated its schools before Brown, the Huguenot Academy (a segregation academy implicitly disavowing that Catholic policy by its title), merged with Blessed Sacrament High School, a nearby Catholic high school, to become Blessed Sacrament-Huguenot. In 1985 the Bollingbrook School, another private school originally founded as a segregation academy for white students in 1958, merged with a nearby Catholic high school in Petersburg, Gibbons High School, to become St. Vincent de Paul High School.[36]

Most segregation academies founded in Virginia during "Massive Resistance" are still thriving more than a half century later and some like Hampton Roads Academy, the Fuqua School, Nansemond-Suffolk Academy and Isle of Wight Academy continue to expand in the 21st century. Enrollment at Isle of Wight Academy now stands at approximately 650 students, the most ever enrolled at the school.[37] In 2016 Nansemond Suffolk Academy opened a second campus, that includes an additional 22,000 square foot building for students in pre-kindergarten through grade 3.[38] All of these schools had officially adopted non-discrimination policies and begun admitting non-white students by the end of the 1980s and like other private schools, are now eligible for federal education money through what are known as Title programs that flow through public school districts.[39] However, few blacks can afford the high cost of tuition to send their children to these private schools. In some cases, their association with "old money" and past discrimination still cause some tension in the community, especially among non-whites and students of the local public schools. These racist histories may cause black parents who can afford the tuition to be reluctant to enroll their children in these schools.[40]

The abandonment of public schools by most whites in Virginia's rural counties that lie within the Black Belt and white flight from inner cities to suburbs after the failure of "Massive Resistance" has ultimately led to increasingly racially and economically isolated public schools in Virginia. As of 2016 there were 74,515 students in these isolated schools, including 17 percent of all black students in Virginia's public schools and 8 percent of all Hispanic students. Many of these schools are inner city schools located in Richmond, Norfolk, Petersburg, Roanoke, and Newport News. By contrast, less than 1 percent of Virginia's non-Hispanic white students attended these isolated schools.[41]

Mississippi

Further information: Education segregation in the Mississippi Delta
Further information: Education segregation in the Mississippi Red Clay region

In Mississippi, many of the segregation academies were first established in the black-majority Mississippi Delta region in northwestern Mississippi. The Delta has historically had a very large majority-black population, related to the history of the use of slave labor on cotton plantations. The potential for integration resulted in white parents' establishing segregation academies in every county in the Delta. Many academies are still operating, from Indianola, Mississippi, to Humphreys County. These schools began to accept black students later in the 20th century, although many of them still enroll relatively small numbers of black students. In a region with low incomes among blacks, many African-American parents cannot afford the private schools. At least one school in Mississippi, Carroll Academy, receives substantial funding from the segregationist Council of Conservative Citizens.[42][43] Mississippi Governor Ross Barnett said in September 1962, "I submit to you tonight, no school will be integrated in Mississippi while I am your governor".[44]

Arkansas

Between 1966 and 1972, at least 32 segregation academies were established in Arkansas.[45] By 1972, about 5,000 white students attended such schools.[45]

Arkansas is one of twelve states that have not adopted the Blaine Amendment to their state constitutions. The amendment forbids direct government aid to educational institutions that have a religious affiliation. Many segregation academies have since adopted curricula with a "Christian world view".[citation needed]

Louisiana

The United States District Court for the Eastern District of Louisiana mandated integration of public schools in Washington Parish (1969) and St. Tammany Parish (1969), and the United States District Court for the Western District of Louisiana did so for Tensas Parish (1970), Claiborne Parish (1970), and Jackson Parish (1969).[46]

Alabama

Alabama, like Mississippi, largely ignored the 1954 ruling of Brown v. Board of Education. In 1958, a conflict over segregation in city parks brought Martin Luther King Jr. to Montgomery. The city closed its parks; King recommended that black parents attempt to enroll their children in city schools, expecting to establish cases testing the Alabama Pupil Placement Act. Montgomery Academy was the first segregation academy established in Alabama; others followed in the late 1960s.

North Carolina

Following the Brown v. Board of Education decision in 1954, Governor William B. Umstead established a committee to consider the effects of complying the U.S. Supreme Court's ruling. The bi-racial committee made up of blacks and whites reported to the General Assembly that desegregation "throughout the state cannot be accomplished and should not be attempted." Luther Hodges became governor in 1955, and although opposed to integration, he formed a new committee to study the issue, because the Court had ruled that school desegregation must happen "with all deliberate speed." When it became clear that the federal government was not going to force the issue, the state began to look for ways to circumvent the Supreme Court, using legal means, while avoiding the outright defiance of court orders that was taking place in Virginia where the legislature had adopted a policy of massive resistance.[47]

This committee established the Pearsall Plan, named after its chairman, Thomas J. Pearsall of Rocky Mount. In 1956 the Pearsall Plan established a system of local control, freedom of choice, and school vouchers. The Pearsall Plan also gave school districts the option of shutting down schools by public referendum if they were faced with a desegregation order.[47] The freedom-of-choice system allowed students to attend the school their parents wanted them to attend, and the voucher system allowed parents to use state money to support their child's education in a private school. As in other southern states a number of private segregation academies were founded.

In 2019 the North Carolina State Board of Education voted unanimously to approve the conversion of Halifax County's private Hobgood Academy, founded in 1969 as a segregation academy, to a public charter school. Hobgood's student population is 88 percent white, while only 4 percent of those attending the Halifax County public Schools are white. This had led to concerns by some teachers that while charter schools in some states have helped low-income students improve academically, in North Carolina they have primarily been used as a means for whites to opt out of traditional public schools.[48]

South Carolina

In South Carolina, where private schools have existed since the 1800s, there were no fully racially integrated private schools before 1954. Some 200 private schools were created between 1963 and 1975; private school enrollment hit a peak of 50,000 in 1978.[49] In Clarendon County, for example, the private academy Clarendon Hall was established in late 1965, after four black students enrolled in a previously all-white public school in the fall term. By 1969, only 281 white students were left in the public school system, and only 16 white students were in public schools when they officially desegregated a year later.[50]

Texas

Texas was an early opponent of desegregation. In 1956, blacks were turned away from Mansfield High School in defiance of Brown and other federal orders to integrate. In Dallas, for example, the Dallas Independent School District subdivided itself into six subdistricts, each of which was "one race" (more than ninety percent white or black).[51] The Texas Education Agency was ordered in November 1970 to desegregate Texas public schools (United States v. Texas).[52] The state did not offer any financial assistance to private schools as Virginia, Mississippi, and Alabama had.

List of schools founded as segregation academies

A partial list of segregation academies includes the following:[n 1]

SchoolStateEst.Ref.
Abbeville Christian AcademyAlabama1970[53]
Autauga AcademyAlabama1969[54]
Bessemer AcademyAlabama1969[55]
Central Alabama AcademyAlabama1970[54][55]
Chambers AcademyAlabama1969[55]
Clarke Preparatory SchoolAlabama1970[56][55]
Coosa Valley AcademyAlabama1972[55]
Dixie AcademyAlabama1967[55]
Edgewood AcademyAlabama1967[57][58]
Escambia AcademyAlabama1970[59]
Eclectic AcademyAlabama1972[55]
Grove Hill AcademyAlabama1970[55]
Houston AcademyAlabama1970[60]
Fort Dale AcademyAlabama1969[61]
Inglenook AcademyAlabama1970[55]
John T. Morgan AcademyAlabama1965[62]
Lowndes AcademyAlabama1966[63]
Macon East AcademyAlabama1963[64]
Monroe AcademyAlabama1969[65]
Montgomery AcademyAlabama1959[66]
Pickens AcademyAlabama1969[67]
Saint James SchoolAlabama1955[68]
South Choctaw AcademyAlabama1969[53]
Springwood SchoolAlabama1970[65]
Sumter AcademyAlabama1970 closed 2017[69]
Trinity Presbyterian SchoolAlabama1970[70]
Tuscaloosa AcademyAlabama1967[71][65][72]
Wilcox AcademyAlabama1970[73]
Bellaire AcademyArkansas1970[74]
Central Arkansas Christian SchoolArkansas1970[75][45]
Central Baptist AcademyArkansas1970[45]
Edgewood AcademyArkansas1970[74]
England AcademyArkansas1970[74]
Hughes AcademyArkansas1971[45]
Jefferson Preparatory AcademyArkansas1971[76]
Marvell AcademyArkansas1966[45]
Montrose AcademyArkansas1970[74]
Pulaski AcademyArkansas1971[45]
Southeast AcademyArkansas1970[74]
Tabernacle Baptist AcademyArkansas1970[45]
Watson Chapel AcademyArkansas1971[76]
West Memphis Christian SchoolArkansas1970[45]
Bayshore Christian SchoolFlorida1971[77][78]
Dade Christian SchoolFlorida1961[79][80][81]
Glades Day SchoolFlorida1965[82]
Lake Highland Preparatory SchoolFlorida1970[83]
Maclay SchoolFlorida1968[84]
Oak Hall SchoolFlorida1970[85]
Robert F. Munroe Day SchoolFlorida1969[86]
Rolling Green AcademyFlorida1970[87]
North Florida Christian SchoolFlorida1968[84]
Tallavana Christian SchoolFlorida1971[86]
University Christian SchoolFlorida1970[88]
Bulloch AcademyGeorgia1971[89]
Deerfield-Windsor SchoolGeorgia1969
Briarwood AcademyGeorgia1970
First Presbyterian Day SchoolGeorgia197097
Flint River AcademyGeorgia1967[90][91]
George Walton AcademyGeorgia1969[92]
Gordon Ivey Independent High SchoolGeorgia1970[55]
John Hancock AcademyGeorgia1966[55]
Nathanael Greene AcademyGeorgia1969[93]
Pinewood Christian AcademyGeorgia1970[46]
Southland AcademyGeorgia1967[94]
Southwest Georgia AcademyGeorgia1970[95]
Stratford AcademyGeorgia1960[96]
Tattnall Square AcademyGeorgia1969[97]
The Westfield SchoolGeorgia1970[98][99]
Valwood SchoolGeorgia1969[100]
Bowling Green SchoolLouisiana1970[46]
Briarfield AcademyLouisiana1970[55]
Caddo Community SchoolLouisiana1969[101]
Central Private SchoolLouisiana1971[55]
Claiborne AcademyLouisiana1969[102]|[55]
False River AcademyLouisiana1969[103]
Glenbrook SchoolLouisiana1966[101]
Grawood Christian SchoolLouisiana1966[101]
Guy BeucheLouisiana1969[104]
LeJeune AcademyLouisiana1969[104]
Livonia AcademyLouisiana1969[104]
River Oaks SchoolLouisiana1969[105]
Old River AcademyLouisiana1969[104]
West End AcademyLouisiana1969[101]
Prytania Private SchoolLouisiana1960[101]
Tenth Ward Private SchoolLouisiana1969[104]
Adams County Christian SchoolMississippi1964[55]
Amite Center SchoolMississippi1968[55]
Bayou AcademyMississippi1964[106][107]
Benton AcademyMississippi1969[108]
Brandon AcademyMississippi1968 closed 1989[55]
Brookhaven AcademyMississippi1970[109][110][55]
Calhoun AcademyMississippi1968[111]
Canton AcademyMississippi1965[112]
Carroll AcademyMississippi1969[113][108][55]
Central AcademyMississippi1969 closed 2017[111]
Central Delta AcademyMississippic 1969
closed 2010		[114]
Centreville AcademyMississippi1967[93]
Central Holmes AcademyMississippi1967[115]
Copiah AcademyMississippi1967[107]
Cruger-Tchula AcademyMississippi1965[112][116]
Council Manhattan High SchoolMississippi1966[117]
Deer Creek AcademyMississippi1970[118]
Delta AcademyMississippi1964[119]
East Holmes AcademyMississippi1964
Closed 2006		[120]
East Rankin AcademyMississippi1970
Greenville Christian SchoolMississippi1969[121]
Hillcrest Christian SchoolMississippi1965[107]
Indianola AcademyMississippi1965[107]
Heidelberg AcademyMississippi1970[55]
Heritage AcademyMississippi1964[122]
Humphreys AcademyMississippi1968[123]
Jackson AcademyMississippi1959[107]
Jackson Preparatory SchoolMississippi1970[107]
Jefferson Davis AcademyMississippi1969[55]
Kirk AcademyMississippi1966[124]
Lamar SchoolMississippi1964[120]
Lawrence County AcademyMississippi1970[109]
Lee AcademyMississippi1970[125]
Leake AcademyMississippi1970[126][127]
Leland AcademyMississippi1969[128]
Madison-Ridgeland AcademyMississippi1969[129]
Magnolia HeightsMississippi1970[130]
Manchester AcademyMississippi1969[131][132]
Marshall AcademyMississippi1968[133]
McCluer AcademyMississippi1970[117][107]
Northpoint Christian SchoolMississippi1973[134]
North Sunflower AcademyMississippi1969[135][114]
Oak Hill Academy (Mississippi)Mississippi1966[136]
Parklane AcademyMississippi1970[107]
Pillow AcademyMississippi1966[107]
Sharkey-Issaquena AcademyMississippi1970[137]
St. George's Episcopal Day SchoolMississippi[138]
Starkville AcademyMississippi1969[139]
Strider AcademyMississippi1971
closed 2018		[140][107]
Tri-County AcademyMississippi1970[55]
Tunica Institute of LearningMississippi1964[141]
Walthall AcademyMississippi1969[55]
Washington SchoolMississippi1969[142]
Wilkinson County Christian AcademyMississippi1969[143]
Winona Christian SchoolMississippi1970[144]
Winston AcademyMississippi1969[111]
Woodland Hills AcademyMississippi1970 closed[145]
Arendell Parrott AcademyNorth Carolina1964[146]
Cape Fear AcademyNorth Carolina1968[147]
Forsyth Country Day SchoolNorth Carolina1970[148]
Lawrence AcademyNorth Carolina1968[149]
Northside Christian AcademyNorth Carolina1961[148]
Providence Day SchoolNorth Carolina1970[148]
Rocky Mount AcademyNorth Carolina1968[150]
Wake Christian AcademyNorth Carolina1966[151]
Christian Heritage AcademyOklahoma1972[152]
Bowman AcademySouth Carolina1966[153][154]
Clarendon Hall AcademySouth Carolina1965[94]
Calhoun AcademySouth Carolina1969[155]
Hilton Head Preparatory SchoolSouth Carolina1985[156]
Jefferson Davis AcademySouth Carolina1965[157][158]
John C. Calhoun AcademySouth Carolina1966[158]
Hammond SchoolSouth Carolina1966[159][160][156]
Patrick Henry AcademySouth Carolina1965[161]
Thomas Heyward AcademySouth Carolina1970[162][163]
Richard Winn AcademySouth Carolina1966[164][165]
Roy Hudgens AcademySouth Carolina1966[166]
Sea Island AcademySouth Carolina1970[167]
Wade Hampton AcademySouth Carolina1964[168]
Wilson HallSouth Carolina1967[169]
Willington AcademySouth Carolina1970[156][170]
Coastal AcademySouth Carolina1970[171]
Stonewall Jackson Academy (Orangeburg)South Carolina1965[156][170]
Williamsburg AcademySouth Carolina1970[172][173]
Lee AcademySouth Carolina1965[157][158]
Marlboro AcademySouth Carolina1969[174]
Brentwood AcademyTennessee1969[12]
Briarcrest Baptist High SchoolTennessee1973[2]
Evangelical Christian SchoolTennessee1965[175]
Franklin Road AcademyTennessee1971[12]
Harding Academy (Nashville)Tennessee1971[176][177]
Lakehill Preparatory SchoolTexas1971[178]
Northwest AcademyTexas1970[11]
Trinity Christian AcademyTexas1970[179]
Amelia AcademyVirginia1964[180]
Bobbe's SchoolVirginia1958[181]
Bollingbrook SchoolVirginia1958[36]
Broadwater AcademyVirginia1966[182]
Brunswick AcademyVirginia1964[183]
Fairfax-Brewster SchoolVirginia1955[181]
Prince Edward AcademyVirginia1959[184]
Hampton Roads AcademyVirginia1959[185]
Huguenot AcademyVirginia1959[186]
Isle of Wight AcademyVirginia1967[185]
Jamestown AcademyVirginia1964[187]
John S. Mosby AcademyVirginia1959[188]
Lynchburg Christian AcademyVirginia1967[26]
Nansemond-Suffolk AcademyVirginia1966[185]
Robert E. Lee AcademyVirginia1959[189]
Rock Hill AcademyVirginia1959[189]
Southampton AcademyVirginia1969[190]
Tidewater Academy (Wakefield)Virginia1964[185]
Tidewater Academy (Norfolk)Virginia1958[191]
Tomahawk AcademyVirginia1964[192]
Surry AcademyVirginia1963[193]
Pensacola Christian AcademyFlorida1954[194][195][196]
York AcademyVirginia1965[197]

In federal law

Green v. Connally (1971) set the standard by which the Internal Revenue Service identifies a segregation academy, a so-called "Paragraph (1) School".[35] The IRS must deny exemption to schools:

which have been determined in adversary or administrative proceedings to be racially discriminatory; or were established or expanded at or about the time the public school districts in which they are located or which they serve were desegregating, and which cannot demonstrate that they do not racially discriminate in admissions, employment, scholarships, loan programs, athletics, and extracurricular programs.

See also

  • The "Southern Manifesto", a document written in 1956 by legislators in the United States Congress opposed to racial integration in public places
  • Runyon v. McCrary (1976): U.S. Supreme Court affirms private schools may not discriminate due to race based on 42 U.S.C. 1981.
  • Allen v. Wright, a 1984 U. S. Supreme Court case challenging public subsidy for private schools that are effectively segregated.

Further reading

References

  1. ^ "A History of Private Schools & Race in the American South". Southern Education Foundation. Archived from the original on July 30, 2018. Retrieved 2017-08-22.
  2. ^ White, Jack (December 15, 1975). "Segregated Academies". Time. Archived June 30, 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved August 23, 2017.
  3. ^ Dellinger, Matt (2010). Interstate 69: The Unfinished History of the Last Great American Highway. Simon and Schuster. p. 147. ISBN 978-1439175736. Archived December 7, 2023 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved August 19, 2020.
  4. ^ "Brown v. Board of Education (1954)". Brown v. Board of Education (1954). National Archives. September 29, 2021. Archived December 15, 2022 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 17 May 2024.
  5. ^ Coulson, Andrew J. (1999). Market Education: The Unknown History. Transaction Publishers. p. 275. ISBN 0-7658-0496-4.
  6. ^ David Salisbury (ed.) (2004). Educational Freedom in Urban America: Brown V. Board After Half a Century. CATO Institute. p. 32. ISBN 1-930865-56-2.
  7. ^ Younge, Gary (2004-11-30). "Alabama clings to segregationist past". The Guardian. Archived December 8, 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2006-05-02.
  8. ^ "Civil Rights Era of 1950-1965". Civil Rights Era of 1950-1965. Florida Gulf Coast University. Archived May 17, 2024 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 17 May 2024.
  9. ^ Thomas V. O’Brien, “The Politics of Race and Schooling: Public Education in Georgia,” 1900-1961(Lanham, Maryland: 1999) 99-198. Cited by "A History of Private Schools and Race in the American South Archived September 6, 2023 at the Wayback Machine" (Southern Education Foundation, 2016)
  10. ^ Rooks, Noliwe (2018-11-28). "Opinion | Cindy Hyde-Smith Is Teaching Us What Segregation Academies Taught Her". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived November 28, 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2023-09-06.
  11. ^ ERIC (May 1972). ERIC ED065646: It's Not Over in the South: School Desegregation in Forty-Three Southern Cities Eighteen Years After Brown.
  12. ^ Dyer, Jennifer Eaton (2007-04-12). "The Core Beliefs of Southern Evangelicals: A Psycho-Social Investigation of the Evangelical Megachurch Phenomenon" (PhD). etd.library.vanderbilt.edu. Vanderbilt University. p. 23. Archived November 17, 2024 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2025-01-04.
  13. ^ Nagasawa, Mako A. (2021-01-06). Abortion Policy and Christian Social Ethics in the United States. Wipf and Stock. p. 286. ISBN 978-1-7252-7189-0. Archived December 7, 2023 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved February 26, 2021.
  14. ^ Crowder, Carla (2002-10-27). "Private white academies struggle in changing world". The Birmingham News. Archived from the original on 2012-11-15. Retrieved 2006-05-02.
  15. ^ Connolly, Regan Loyola (2004-01-12). "Private schools diversify". The Montgomery Advertiser. p. 1. Archie Douglas, the headmaster of The Montgomery Academy, said that the school was started in 1959 in what he believed was a reaction to desegregation of public schools. He said, "I am sure that those who resented the civil rights movement or sought to get away from it took refuge in the academy. But, it's not 1959 anymore and The Montgomery Academy has a philosophy today that reflects the openness ... and utter lack of discrimination with regard to race or religion that was evident in prior decades."
  16. ^ "Montgomery Academy Profile". Private School Review. Archived May 6, 2014 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved May 5, 2014.
  17. ^ "Civil Rights Movement Timeline". History.com. December 4, 2017. Archived May 17, 2024 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 17 May 2024.
  18. ^ "The Real Origins of the Religious Right". POLITICO Magazine. May 27, 2014. Archived January 26, 2021 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved January 23, 2021.
  19. ^ Hall, Isabelle (July 18, 1970). "IRS sets the rules". Pittsburgh Courier. Archived January 9, 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 8 January 2018.
  20. ^ Troy, Gil (2005). Morning in America : how Ronald Reagan invented the 1980s. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. pp. 94–96. ISBN 978-1-4008-4930-7. OCLC 868971097
  21. ^ "Wright v. Miller, 480 F. Supp. 790 (D.D.C. 1979)". U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia. November 26, 1979. Archived January 9, 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 8 January 2018.
  22. ^ "No. 81-757, No. 81-970". Office of the solicitor general, United States department of justice. 1983. Archived from the original on 2005-05-23. Retrieved 2006-05-02. Text of the Allen v. Wright ruling, Supreme Court of the United States.
  23. ^ "IRS vs. 'segregation academies'". Christian Science Monitor. May 27, 1980. Archived December 1, 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 30 November 2018.
  24. ^ Johnson, Olati (Feb 11, 2010). "The Story of Bob Jones University v. United States: Race, Religion, and Congress' Extraordinary Acquiescence". Columbia Public Law & Legal Theory Working Papers. Archived April 22, 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 30 November 2018.
  25. ^ Evans, Martin C. (May 16, 2004). "Despite landmark ruling, schools still segregated.". Newsday. Archived from the original on September 9, 2015. Retrieved 6 December 2017.
  26. ^ Merritt, Jonathan (September 18, 2016). "Segregation Is Still Alive at These Christian Schools". Daily Beast. Archived February 25, 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 4 November 2017.
  27. ^ "Private Schools: The Last Refuge". Time. November 14, 1969. Archived February 25, 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 6 December 2017.
  28. ^ "Brown v. Board at Fifty: "With an Even Hand"". Brown v. Board at Fifty: “With an Even Hand”. Library of Congress. Archived April 5, 2024 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 17 May 2024.
  29. ^ Richmond Times-Dispatch (February 18, 1958) Almond Signs the Little Rock Bill Archived December 7, 2023 at the Wayback Machine Encyclopedia Virginia
  30. ^ Brian J. Daugherity, (August 2016) "Keep on Keeping On": African Americans and the Implementation of Brown v. Board of Education in Virginia Archived January 5, 2020 at the Wayback Machine University of Virginia Press
  31. ^ Chris Duncombe; Michael Cassidy (November 4, 2016) Increasingly Separate and Unequal in U.S. and Virginia Schools Archived October 24, 2017 at the Wayback Machine The Commonwealth Institute for Fiscal Analysis
  32. ^ Brian Daugherity, Keep On Keeping On (University of Virginia Press, 2016) at p. 99
  33. ^ "Massive Resistance". The Civil Rights Movement in Virginia. Virginia Historical Society. 2004. Archived from the original on September 15, 2008. Retrieved October 29, 2005.
  34. ^ "Closing Prince Edward County's Schools". The Civil Rights Movement in Virginia. Virginia Historical Society. 2004. Archived from the original on December 8, 2008. Retrieved October 8, 2007.
  35. ^ Berkovsky, Terry (2000). "Private School Update". Internal Revenue Service. Archived May 5, 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2 January 2018.
  36. ^ Tobias, Carl (1996). "Public School Desegregation In Virginia During The Post-Brown Decade". William and Mary Law Review. 37 (4): 1288. Archived December 1, 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved November 22, 2017.
  37. ^ "History". Isle of Wight Academy. Archived May 5, 2021 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved May 5, 2021.
  38. ^ "NSA Quick Facts". Archived from the original on December 18, 2016. Retrieved 19 December 2018.
  39. ^ Carr, Sarah (December 13, 2012). "In Southern Towns, 'Segregation Academies' Are Still Going Strong". The Atlantic. Archived July 27, 2020 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved March 11, 2017.
  40. ^ Robert E. Pierre (December 16, 2011). "Is the Fuqua School's racist past still present?". Washington Post. p. B02. Archived August 20, 2020 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved June 29, 2019.
  41. ^ "» Increasingly Separate and Unequal in U.S. and Virginia Schools". Archived from the original on July 27, 2020. Retrieved June 29, 2019.
  42. ^ Kifner, John (1999). "Lott, and Shadow of a Pro-White Group". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived January 5, 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2018-01-04.
  43. ^ "White Supremacist Group Backs Private Academies in Mississippi". Southern Poverty Law Center. Archived November 14, 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2018-01-04.
  44. ^ Ellis, Kate. "The Riot at Ole' Miss". American Public Media. Archived January 8, 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 7 January 2018.
  45. ^ "Private School Movement - Encyclopedia of Arkansas". www.encyclopediaofarkansas.net. Archived November 10, 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2017-11-13.
  46. ^ "Brumfield v. Dodd, 405 F. Supp. 338 (E.D. La. 1975)". E. D. La. Dec 2, 1975. Archived December 8, 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 1 September 2017.
  47. ^ "Desegregation in North Carolina's Elementary and High Schools · Crossing the Color Line: One at a Time, 1950-1960 · The State of History". soh.omeka.chass.ncsu.edu. Archived August 13, 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved August 13, 2019.
  48. ^ Strauss, Valerie. "Perspective | A new story of school segregation in North Carolina: A private white-flight academy is turning charter". Washington Post. Archived August 13, 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved August 13, 2019.
  49. ^ Edgar, Walter B. (1992). South Carolina in the modern age. University of South Carolina Press. p. 129. ISBN 9780872498310. Archived December 7, 2023 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 6 December 2017.
  50. ^ Burton, Vernon and Lewie Reece. "The Palmetto Revolution: School Desegregation in South Carolina." In With all Deliberate Speed; Implementing Brown v. Board of Education, ed. Brian J. Daugherity and Charles C. Bolton, 59-91. Fayetteville, Ark.: The University of Arkansas Press, 2008.
  51. ^ "Tasby v. Estes, 572 F. 2d 1010". Court of Appeals, 5th Circuit. April 21, 1978. Archived December 16, 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 9 January 2018.
  52. ^ Kemerer, Frank R. "UNITED STATES V. TEXAS". Texas State Historical Association. Archived February 21, 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 9 January 2018.
  53. ^ Bagley, Joseph (December 15, 2018). The Politics of White Rights: Race, Justice, and Integrating Alabama's Schools. University of Georgia Press. p. 180. ISBN 9780820354187. Archived December 7, 2023 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 29 November 2018.
  54. ^ Kennedy, Robert Francis (June 1978). Judge Frank M. Johnson, Jr: a biography. Putnam. ISBN 9780399121234.
  55. ^ Smith, Patrick. "The Rebel Made Me Do It: Mascots, Race, and the Lost Cause". Archived May 5, 2021 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 5 May 2021.
  56. ^ Bagley, Joseph (2018). The politics of white rights: race, justice, and integrating Alabama's schools. University of Georgia Press. p. 180. ISBN 978-0-8203-5418-7. OCLC 1065537539
  57. ^ Hilliard III-Baffour Amankwatia, Asa G. (July 2006). "Aliens in the Education Matrix: Recovering Freedom". The New Educator. 2 (2): 87–102. doi:10.1080/15476880600657348. S2CID 219625220
  58. ^ Nicholas, Bruce (July 31, 1973). "No immediate effections seen here from school ruling". Montgomery Advertiser. p. 1.
  59. ^ McDonald, Anna (May 2005). Southern Normal?: An Exploration of Integration in a Deep South Town: Brewton, Alabama, 1954-1971. Archived March 7, 2021 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved June 4, 2021.
  60. ^ Cook, Jim (27 July 2016). "Houston Academy has changed since Hillary Clinton's 1972 visit". Archived December 13, 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 22 November 2016.
  61. ^ Jones, Pam (Summer 2005). "Where There's a Will: The Story of Indian Springs School". Alabama Heritage Magazine. 77: 26–33. Archived September 24, 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved May 28, 2021.
  62. ^ Holthouse, David (Winter 2008). "Activists Confront Hate in Selma, Ala.". Intelligence Report. Archived January 29, 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved January 25, 2018.
  63. ^ Carla Crowder (October 27, 2002). "Private white academies struggle in changing world". Birmingham News. Archived from the original on November 15, 2012. Retrieved January 6, 2013.
  64. ^ "SEPTEMBER 10, 1963: STATE FUNDS PRIVATE SCHOOL FOR WHITES TO AVOID INTEGRATION IN TUSKEGEE, ALABAMA [VIDEO]". Black Then. August 13, 2017. Archived January 14, 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved March 27, 2018.
  65. ^ Bagley, Joseph (15 December 2018). The politics of white rights: race, justice, and integrating Alabama's schools. Athens: University of Georgia Press. p. 180. ISBN 978-0-8203-5418-7. OCLC 1065537539
  66. ^ "Segregation Academies and State Action". The Yale Law Journal. 82 (7): 1436–1461. 1973. doi:10.2307/795573. JSTOR 795573. Archived September 20, 2020 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved September 1, 2019.
  67. ^ "Segregation Academies: Past, Still Present". Archived November 15, 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 14 November 2017.
  68. ^ "Recreational facilities Ruling Made Archived November 11, 2021 at the Wayback Machine," The Tuscaloosa News, Jan 21, 1972.
  69. ^ Johnson, Wanda B. & Pearson, Curtis W. D. (December 1983). Fifteen Years Ago...Rural Alabama Revisited. Clearinghouse Publication Number 82
  70. ^ Bagley, Joseph (2018). The Politics of White Rights: race, justice, and integrating Alabama's schools. Athens: University of Georgia Press. p. 227. ISBN 9780820354187. OCLC 1065537539 Most whites who remained in the city's increasingly tiny, affluent white enclaves enrolled their children in one of its large segregation academies, each of which accepted a token number of black students—Montgomery Academy, no black students among 819; St James School, 49 out of 996; and Trinity Presbyterian, just 1 of 906.
  71. ^ Pete Cobun (April 29, 1971). "Epilogue". Crimson White. Archived October 19, 2021 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved May 4, 2021.
  72. ^ Mariah Katherine (25 April 2021). "Segregation Academies--Episode 3: Interview with Dr. Bryan Oliver, headmaster of Tuscaloosa Academy"[dead link]
  73. ^ Carla Crowder (27 October 2002). "Private white academies struggle in changing world". The Birmingham News. Archived from the original on 15 November 2012.
  74. ^ "Private School Group Formed". Camden, Arkansas: Camden News. June 25, 1973. Archived March 19, 2022 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 21 June 2020. – via Newspapers.com.
  75. ^ "Our History and Mission | Central Arkansas Christian Schools". Central Arkansas Christian Schools. Archived November 14, 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2017-11-14.
  76. ^ "Private Schools". Education Week. 3 August 1988. Archived December 1, 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 20 November 2017.
  77. ^ Ringle, William (October 12, 1971). "Seg Academies go hand and hand with Integration". Port Huron Times Herald. p. 8. Archived February 8, 2021 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved May 4, 2021. After schools opened here this year, an estimated 3,100 pupils, almost entirely white, failed to show up. It was a similar story in Mobile, Ala.: 2,000 missing. In Indianapolis, Ind., 4,000 pupils stayed away. In Savannah, Ga. an estimated 4,000 eligible pupils are not in public school. In Pasadena, Calif., 1,700. Where are they? Mostly in private schools — dubbed "segregation academies" — which have sprung up wherever schools have been integrated, North and South. Since the Supreme Court's 1954 decision outlawing schools separated by race, the number of private schools has more than doubled. About 300,000 pupils attend "seg academies" across the nation, according to estimates presented to the Senate Committee on Equal Educational Opportunity. In this city, where full-scale desegregation was imposed this year for the first time, five academies have opened on top of nine already here. Among the new ones is Bayshore Christian School. Its principal, Winton A. Porter, rejects the suggestion that it was planned to defeat either busing or desegregation.
  78. ^ Johnson, Maria (April 28, 1992). "Bayshore principal called basketball evangelist". The Tampa Tribune. p. 8. Archived January 10, 2021 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved May 4, 2021. The school was founded by the Rev. Robert Shelley 20 years ago, [principle Herman] Valdes said, when busing became an issue in the county's public school system.
  79. ^ "Racial Exclusion by Religious Schools: Brown v. Dade Christian Schools, Inc.". Harvard Law Review. 91 (4): 879–886. 1978. doi:10.2307/1340360. JSTOR 1340360
  80. ^ "Private Religious Schools / Segregation / Court, Ruling | Vanderbilt Television News Archive". tvnews.vanderbilt.edu. Archived May 4, 2021 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved May 4, 2021.
  81. ^ "EDUCATIONAL POLICY AND THE LAW". Washington University in St. Louis School of Law. Archived from the original on 16 May 2018. Retrieved May 4, 2021.
  82. ^ Clary, Mike (December 29, 2006). "School's racial divides blur on football field". Florida Sun-Sentinel. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved 4 May 2021.
  83. ^ Pynn, Roger (February 25, 1970). "Private Prep School Plans Announced". The Orlando Sentinel. p. 8A. Archived January 6, 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved May 4, 2021. – via Newspapers.com [Board of trustees chairman Joseph] Guernsey refused comment on whether the move was a result of suggestions that private schools were needed in light of federally ordered Integration of public schools.
  84. ^ Glenda Alice Rabby, The Pain and the Promise: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Tallahassee, Florida, Athens, Ga., University of Georgia Press, 1999, ISBN 082032051X, p. 255.
  85. ^ "Just 'one of the boys'". Pulitzer.org. Archived November 5, 2020 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved October 31, 2020.
  86. ^ White, Headley J. (2006). Effects of Desegregation on Gadsden County, Florida Public Schools 1968-1972 (PhD). Florida State University. p. 84. Archived August 2, 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved May 4, 2021.
  87. ^ Davis, Horace G Jr. (August 3, 1970). "Do you, Governor Kirk?". Archived November 5, 2020 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 4 June 2021.
  88. ^ White, Tim & Smith, Kimberly M. (2012-10-08). At the End of the Road: One Man's Journey from Chaos to Clarity. BookBaby. ISBN 9780985917715.[dead link]
  89. ^ Deever, Bryan (April 1991). The Panopticon of Tracking: Desegregation and Curriculum Change in a Southern School, 1968-1972
  90. ^ Hearings Before the Select Committee on Equal Educational Opportunity. United States Senate. March 3–6, 1971. Archived December 7, 2023 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved May 7, 2021.
  91. ^ "Six Schools kicked out for alleged segregation". Aiken Standard. May 1, 1972. p. 9. Archived May 9, 2021 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved May 7, 2021. – via Newspapers.com Six schools have been banished from the Georgia Association of Independent Schools (GAIS) after being accused of maintaining segregationist ties... They are ... Flint River Academy in Macon
  92. ^ Ezell, Hank (October 16, 1983). "A new era for academies". Archived November 2, 2020 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved May 17, 2020.
  93. ^ Select Committee on Equal Educational Opportunity, United States. Congress. Senate. (1970). Equal Educational Opportunity: Hearings Before the Select Committee on Equal Educational Opportunity, Ninety-first Congress, Second Session-92nd Congress, First Session, Volume 10. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 2018,2120. Archived June 8, 2020 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 14 January 2018.
  94. ^ King, Wayne (1979-05-09). "South Leads the Country In School Desegregation". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived November 14, 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2017-11-13.
  95. ^ Oney, Steve (March 2, 1980). "A town lost in time". Atlanta Journal Construction. p. 12. Archived October 26, 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved October 26, 2019. Leary is consequently a profoundly segregated town. Nine hundred and sixty-one people live in the hamlet. About seven hundred are black, and the rest are white. The whites live in several dozen neat brick and frame houses in the southwestern end of town. They live on paved streets with sidewalks, and their children attend private schools in Albany, Damascus, or Shellman. In 1970 when the Calhoun County schools consolidated, several of Leary's more prosperous whites pooled their money, bought a yellow Bluebird school bus, lettered it "Southwest Georgia Academy", and now, at great expense, trundle their boys and girls off in it every morning for the long ride necessary to assure that they will not attend classes with blacks.
  96. ^ Kirklen, Ashley (May 18, 2017). "63 years after Brown v. Board, 'white flight' weighs on local family's school choice". WGXA. Retrieved December 3, 2017.
  97. ^ Manis, Andrew Michael (2004). Macon Black and White: An Unutterable Separation in the American Century. Mercer University Press. p. 312. ISBN 9780865549586.
  98. ^ "History - The Westfield School". The Westfield School. July 9, 2020. Archived July 13, 2020 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved July 10, 2020.
  99. ^ "Houston Home Journal". Georgia Historic Newspapers. December 31, 1970. Archived July 10, 2020 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved July 9, 2020.
  100. ^ Pinholster, Johnna (November 15, 2009). "Consolidation: A history of two systems". Valdosta Daily Times. Archived October 11, 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved October 11, 2019.
  101. ^ Brumfield v. Dodd, 425 F. Supp. 528 (E.D. La. 1977) Archived November 14, 2017 at the Wayback Machine
  102. ^ Jim Carl (13 September 2011). Freedom of Choice: Vouchers in American Education: Vouchers in American Education. ABC-CLIO. pp. 54–6. ISBN 978-0-313-39328-0. Retrieved 7 September 2012.
  103. ^ Klingler, Thomas (2003-08-01). If I Could Turn My Tongue Like That: The Creole Language of Pointe Coupee Parish, Louisiana. LSU Press. p. 124. ISBN 9780807127797.
  104. ^ Fabre, Alvin Joseph Jr. (May 1975). Changes in the Pointe Coupee Parish School System During the Years of School Desegregation 1965-1972.. Louisiana State University. Archived November 26, 2020 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 13 November 2017.
  105. ^ Tax-exempt status of private schools: hearing before the Subcommittee on Oversight of the Committee on Ways and Means, House of Representatives, Ninety-ninth Congress, first session. November 1, 1985. hdl:2027/uc1.31210024924332
  106. ^ Thornton, Mary (1983-04-21). "A Legacy of Legal Segregation Returns to Haunt a Small Town". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Archived November 7, 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2017-11-04.
  107. ^ McGee, Meredith Coleman (2013-03-21). James Meredith: Warrior and the America that Created Him. ABC-CLIO. p. 40. ISBN 9780313397400.
  108. ^ Carr, Sarah (December 13, 2012). "In Southern Towns, 'Segregation Academies' Are Still Going Strong". The Atlantic. Archived July 27, 2020 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved March 11, 2017.
  109. ^ Pittman, Ashton (November 23, 2018). "Hyde-Smith Attended All-White 'Seg Academy' to Avoid Integration". Archived November 24, 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2018-11-24. There's "no doubt that's why those schools were set up," said former U.S. Rep Ronnie Shows, a Democrat who was Hyde's junior high basketball coach at Lawrence County Academy in the 1970s.
  110. ^ Campbell, Donna (9 May 2017). "Governor to speak at BA graduation". The Daily Leader. Archived November 24, 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 24 November 2018. Anna-Michael Smith is one of 34 graduates who will be receiving diplomas in John R. Gray Gymnasium at BA Friday. The ceremony begins at 7 p.m. and it is open to the public. Smith is the daughter of Mike Smith and Cindy Hyde-Smith, of Brookhaven. Her mom is the commissioner of agriculture and commerce for the state. The Smiths also raise cattle, which makes Anna-Michael a fifth generation farmer.
  111. ^ Bolton, Charles C. (2005). The Hardest Deal of All. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 9781578067176.
  112. ^ Coffey v. State Educational Finance Commission 296 F. Supp. 1389 (S.D. Miss. 1969) Archived November 10, 2017 at the Wayback Machine
  113. ^ "About Carroll Academy". Archived November 7, 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 4 November 2017.
  114. ^ Moye, J. Todd (2004). Let the People Decide: Black Freedom and White Resistance Movements in Sunflower County, Mississippi, 1945-1986. UNC Press Books. p. 243. ISBN 9780807855614. Archived December 7, 2023 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved March 2, 2011. Sunflower County's two other segregation academies— North Sunflower Academy, between Drew and Ruleville, and Central Delta Academy in Inverness— both sprouted in a similar fashion
  115. ^ Howell, Jeffery B. (2017-03-22). Hazel Brannon Smith: The Female Crusading Scalawag. Univ. Press of Mississippi. p. 224. ISBN 9781496810823. Archived December 7, 2023 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved October 28, 2020.
  116. ^ Sojourner, Sue [Lorenzi] (2013-01-03). Thunder of Freedom: Black Leadership and the Transformation of 1960s Mississippi. University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 978-0813140940. Archived December 7, 2023 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved November 13, 2017.
  117. ^ Kanengiser, Andy (December 10, 1985). "Desegregation Helps them Cope Now". Clarion Ledger
  118. ^ Boyd, Bob (February 1, 1970). "Mayor J.W. Fore is worried over school situation". Delta Democrat Times. p. 20.
  119. ^ "History Archived August 24, 2016 at the Wayback Machine." Delta Academy. Retrieved on April 8, 2012.
  120. ^ Johnston, Erle (1990). Mississippi's Defiant Years, 1953-1973: An Interpretive Documentary with Personal Experiences. Lake Harbor Publishers. p. 309. ISBN 9789991746159. Archived December 7, 2023 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved August 19, 2020.
  121. ^ Rose, Bill (October 11, 1970). "Textbook suite may affect 1 area school". Delta Democrat Times. p. 6.
  122. ^ "A Goal-line Stand For Prejudice". tribunedigital-chicagotribune. Archived October 21, 2014 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2017-11-13.
  123. ^ "Belzoni private academy loses tax-exempt status". Enterprise-Tocsin. September 17, 1970. p. 1.
  124. ^ "Coffey v. State Educational Finance Commission, 296 F. Supp. 1389 (S.D. Miss. 1969)". Justia Law. Archived November 10, 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 4 May 2021.
  125. ^ Massey, Richard (March 17, 2001). "Is Bussing Order Still Needed?". Clarksdale Press Register. p. 1.
  126. ^ "Student Handbook 2020-21 – Leake Academy". Archived May 6, 2021 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved May 6, 2021.
  127. ^ "Leake Academy". National Center for Educational Statistics. US Department of Education. Archived August 3, 2020 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 15 June 2019.
  128. ^ Hewitt Smith, Debbie (June 29, 2020). "As Sesame Street Started So Did Our Seg Academy". Archived May 5, 2021 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved May 5, 2021.
  129. ^ Wolfe, Anna (December 17, 2014). "What is a 'Segregation Academy'?". Jackson Free Press. Archived September 12, 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved November 13, 2017.
  130. ^ Aiken, Charles S. (2003-03-24). The Cotton Plantation South Since the Civil War. JHU Press. p. 278. ISBN 9780801873096.
  131. ^ Nicholas, Teresa (September 9, 2009). "The Times They Are A-Changin' (Back)". NPR. Archived May 8, 2021 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 5 May 2021.
  132. ^ Langston, Caroline (8 April 2020). "It's Just Like the Good Old Days Again". Academy Stories. Archived May 5, 2021 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 5 May 2021.
  133. ^ Callejo-Pérez, David M., 1972- (2001). Southern hospitality : identity, schools, and the civil rights movement in Mississippi, 1964-1972, CHAPTER TEN: Options in the Aftermath of Integration, 1965-1972. New York: P. Lang. pp. 119–127. ISBN 0820450138. OCLC 45129006
  134. ^ Pohlmann, Marcus D. (2008). Opportunity Lost: Race and Poverty in the Memphis City Schools. Univ. of Tennessee Press. p. 85. ISBN 9781572336384.
  135. ^ Asch, Chris Myers (2011-02-01). The Senator and the Sharecropper: The Freedom Struggles of James O. Eastland and Fannie Lou Hamer. Univ of North Carolina Press. p. 27. ISBN 9780807878057. Archived December 7, 2023 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved November 13, 2017.
  136. ^ Selection and confirmation of Federal judges: hearing before the Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, Ninety-sixth Congress. United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on the Judiciary. 1981. Archived December 7, 2023 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved May 25, 2021.
  137. ^ Weaver, Nancy (November 29, 1982). "Race Remains a Factor in School Choice". Clarion Ledger. p. 12.
  138. ^ "Academies Lose Decision". Deta Democrat-Times. July 16, 1975. Archived May 25, 2021 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 25 May 2021.
  139. ^ "Private Academy Backlash". Archived December 13, 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 10 November 2017.
  140. ^ McLaughlin, Eliott (May 27, 2016). "Could Mississippi integration ruling trigger 'white flight'?". CNN. Archived November 16, 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 11 October 2016.
  141. ^ Herbert, Bob (16 May 1999). "In America; Haunted by Segregation". New York Times. Archived September 17, 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 3 August 2016.
  142. ^ "Commentary: The Fight for Education Equity in Mississippi - NBC News". NBC News. Archived November 13, 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2017-11-13.
  143. ^ Dangerfileld, Celnisha. "Mapping Race, School Segregation, and Black Identities in Woodville, Mississippi: A Case Study of a Rural Community". Journal of Rural Community Psychology - Mapping Race. Archived from the original on January 23, 2009.
  144. ^ Conference, United Methodist Church (U S. ) General (2008). The book of resolutions of the United Methodist Church, 2008. United Methodist Pub. House. p. 27. ISBN 9780687032211.
  145. ^ Rosenthal, Jack (1970-09-11). "BOOKS OUT AND IN AT JACKSON, MISS.". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived November 14, 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2017-11-13.
  146. ^ George, Dustin. "50 Years of Parrott Academy". The Free Press. Archived November 7, 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2017-11-01.
  147. ^ Godwin, John L. (2000). Black Wilmington and the North Carolina Way: Portrait of a Community in the Era of Civil Rights Protest. University Press of America. p. 205. ISBN 9780761816829. Archived December 7, 2023 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved August 19, 2020.
  148. ^ Franklin, Lewis Glenn (1975). Desegregation and the rise of private education. OCLC 1699203. Archived June 4, 2021 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved June 4, 2021.
  149. ^ "NC NAACP Amicus Brief outlines history of private-school vouchers in NC". The Carolina Mercury. 2014-02-14. Archived January 15, 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2017-11-04.
  150. ^ Myers, Christopher (2004). "White Freedom Schools: The White Academy Movement in Eastern North Carolina, 1954-1973". The North Carolina Historical Review. 81 (4): 393–425. JSTOR 23523212
  151. ^ Adam, Jerry & Covington, Sam R (September 7, 1969). "Private schools include buildings old and new". Charlotte Observer. p. 12. Archived June 4, 2021 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved June 4, 2021.
  152. ^ "CHA: Our History". Archived July 24, 2020 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 26 June 2020.
  153. ^ Vaden, Luci (2014). Before the Corridor of Shame: The African American Fight for Equal Education After Jim Crow. University of South Carolina Scholar Commons. p. 147. Archived March 19, 2020 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved November 4, 2017.
  154. ^ Brown, Martha Rose (February 8, 2010). "Dwindling enrollment, weak economy force closure of Bowman Academy". T&D. Archived November 7, 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 4 November 2017.
  155. ^ Calhoun Academy v. Commissioner United States Tax Court 94 T.C. 284 Archived November 13, 2017 at the Wayback Machine (March 1, 1990)
  156. ^ Hawes, Jennifer Berry; Adcox, Seanna; Bowers, Paul; Moore, Thad; Smith, Glenn (November 14, 2018). "No accident of history". Post and Courier. Archived from the original on May 5, 2021. Retrieved 2020-02-04.
  157. ^ Ladson-Billings, Gloria (October 2004). "Landing on the Wrong Note: The Price We Paid for Brown". Educational Researcher. 33 (7): 3–13. doi:10.3102/0013189x033007003. JSTOR 3700092. S2CID 144660677
  158. ^ Estes, Steve (2015-07-10). Charleston in Black and White: Race and Power in the South after the Civil Rights Movement. UNC Press Books. p. 93. ISBN 9781469622330. Archived December 7, 2023 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved August 19, 2020.
  159. ^ Wachter, Paul (2015-02-10). "The Seventh Coming". Grantland. Archived December 1, 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2017-11-29.
  160. ^ Egerton, John (1991-09-01). Archaeology of Louisiana: Dispatches from the Modern South. LSU Press. p. 237. ISBN 9780807117057. Archived December 7, 2023 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved May 5, 2021.
  161. ^ Herndon, Nancy (May 19, 1988). "Children of a split community". The Christian Science Monitor. Archived March 31, 2023 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2023-03-31. Once all of the white children here attended the public schools in the Hampton II district. But when the public schools were integrated in 1965 - bringing in five times the number of black children as white from the rural countryside - the white parents formed the Patrick Henry Academy.
  162. ^ "White Parents Flee Public Schools". Federal Times. Army Times Publishing Company. 1 January 1971.
  163. ^ Hawes, Jennifer; Adcox, Seanna; Bowers, Paul; Moore, Thad; Smith, Glenn (November 14, 2018). "No accident of history". The Post and Courier. Archived from the original on May 5, 2021. Retrieved 2021-02-24. Thomas Heyward Academy opened in rural Jasper County in 1970, the year that most districts in South Carolina desegregated under court order. It was one of dozens of private schools that opened to white students as the state resisted integration in the late 1960s and 1970s.
  164. ^ "Elizabeth Martin". Fairfield High School Oral History Collection. University of South Carolina Libraries. Archived May 5, 2021 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 5 May 2021.
  165. ^ "Jerome & Nadine Boyd". Fairfield High School Oral History Collection. University of South Carolina Libraries. Archived May 5, 2021 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 5 May 2021.
  166. ^ Canup, William Shane (2015). "The Geography of Public-Private School Choice and Race: A Case Study of Sumter, Clarendon, and Lee Counties, South Carolina". Archived March 8, 2021 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved May 6, 2021.
  167. ^ David Quick (November 5, 2013). "Charleston Collegiate weaves outdoors into curricula". Post and Courier. Archived December 7, 2023 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved November 29, 2017. And unlike many private schools, Collegiate's student body is diverse, with about 30 percent being minorities. That fact bears noting because the school, which originated as Sea Island Academy, was among a wave of low-cost, rural 'segregation academies' that emerged in the South during the 1970s as a reaction to desegregation. (subscription required)
  168. ^ Hawkins, J. Russell Hawkins. "Religion, Race, and Resistance: White Evangelicals and the Dilemma of Integration in South Carolina 1950-1975". Archived March 22, 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 4 January 2014.
  169. ^ Canup, William Shane [https://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncg/f/Canup_uncg_0154M_11774.pdf The Geography of Public-Private School Choice and Race: A Case Study of Sumter, Clarendon, and Lee Counties, South Carolina] Archived November 14, 2017 at the Wayback Machine (2015)
  170. ^ Reid, Richard (May 26, 2006). "Black Education Martyrs". The Times and Democrat. p. 2.
  171. ^ "The South and Her Children: School Desegregation 1970-1971". Southern Regional Council, Atlanta. March 1971. Archived September 19, 2021 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2022-08-26.
  172. ^ Nelson, David (February 18, 1974). "Answer to problem in Williamsburg County could affect every American". The Times and Democrat. p. B1.
  173. ^ "Mt. Zion AME Church in Greeleyville, SC is Currently on Fire". Daily Kos. Archived December 7, 2023 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved May 9, 2021.
  174. ^ "History - Marlboro Academy". Archived March 29, 2023 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved October 13, 2023.
  175. ^ Pohlmann, Marcus D. (2008). Opportunity Lost: Race and Poverty in the Memphis City Schools. Univ. of Tennessee Press. p. 85. ISBN 9781572336384.
  176. ^ Ritter, Frank (December 12, 1971). "New Private Schools Filled to Capacity". The Tennessean. p. 1.
  177. ^ O'hara, Jim (July 22, 1973). "The 'Christian' schools are on the boom". The Tennessean. p. 1B.
  178. ^ "40 years of DISD desegregation - Lakewood/East Dallas". Lakewood/East Dallas. 2011-07-22. Archived from the original on November 8, 2017. Retrieved 2017-11-21.
  179. ^ "Private School Enrollment $$$ Help for Institution". Baytown Sun. August 4, 1972. p. 8.
  180. ^ Baker, Donald P. (1993-08-09). "A SCHOOL LEFT BEHIND BY THE TIMES". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Archived November 14, 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2017-11-13.
  181. ^ "Runyon v. McCrary, 427 U.S. 160 (1976)". Justia Law. Justia. Archived October 6, 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 9 November 2017.
  182. ^ "About Broadwater Academy". Archived from the original on February 12, 2019. Retrieved 2019-02-10.
  183. ^ "About Brunswick Academy". Archived June 29, 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2019-06-29.
  184. ^ Brookover, Wilbur B. (1993). "Education in Prince Edward County, Virginia, 1953-1993". The Journal of Negro Education. 62 (2): 149–161. doi:10.2307/2295190. JSTOR 2295190
  185. ^ HANTHORN, Jessica (May 16, 2004). "Overcoming Exclusion". Daily Press. Archived November 7, 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 5 November 2017.
  186. ^ Wasson, Wynne W. (August 9, 1998). "Disparate Pasts - Equal Future - Blessed Sacrament, Huguenot Academy Merger Promises Gains for Schools, Students". Richmond Times-Dispatch. pp. B1. Archived December 7, 2023 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved November 2, 2011.
  187. ^ Public Education : 1964 Staff Report. United States Commission on Civil Rights. 1964. p. 277. Archived September 1, 2021 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 5 November 2017.
  188. ^ Keelor, Josette (Oct 17, 2014). "Classmates recall divided schools". Northern Virginia Daily. Archived August 30, 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 29 August 2017.
  189. ^ Gilliam, George. "Interview with Judge Barry Marshall". Virginia Center for Digital History, University of Virginia. Archived December 6, 2021 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 26 August 2017.
  190. ^ Modlin, Carolyn Carter (25 August 1998). The Desegregation of Southampton County, Virginia Schools 1954-1970. hdl:10919/30040
  191. ^ Watson, Denise. "The Norfolk 17 face a hostile reception as schools reopen". Virginian-Pilot. Archived November 14, 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2017-11-14.
  192. ^ 1964 Staff Report Public Education. United States Commission on Civil Rights. Oct 1964. Archived September 1, 2021 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 31 August 2017.
  193. ^ LENZ, JESSICA HANTHORN AND KIMBERLY (May 16, 2004). "Overcoming Exclusion". dailypress.com. Archived October 11, 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved October 11, 2019.
  194. ^ "Arlin Horton gives no comment after Nixon decision". Pensacola News Journal. 1970-07-11. p. 16. Retrieved 2024-04-07.
  195. ^ ""One negro child is attending classes, according to the school"". The Pensacola News. 1970-09-02. p. 1. Archived April 6, 2024 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2024-04-07.
  196. ^ "Enrollment increase from desegregation plans". The Pensacola News. 1969-04-25. p. 2. Archived April 7, 2024 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2024-04-07.
  197. ^ Press, MARY MONTAGUE SIKESSpecial to the Daily (June 23, 2005). "OLD CLASSMATES, NEW MEMORIES". dailypress.com. Archived July 14, 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved July 14, 2019.
  1. ^ n1