Medri Bahri (Tigrinya: ምድሪ ባሕሪ, English: Land of the Sea) or Mereb Melash (Tigrinya: መረብ ምላሽ, English: Beyond the Mereb)[a] was a province of the Ethiopian Empire governed by the Bahr Negash.[b] This province was located north of the Mereb River and west of the Bur Province, in the Eritrean highlands (Kebassa) and some surrounding areas, mainly comprising the historical regions of Hamasien and Seraye.[1][2] The province originally included authority over coastal territories including the port of Hirgigo and access to Massawa, but lost control of the coast following the Ottoman conquest of Massawa in 1557.[3]

History

The office of the Bahr Negash had roots stretching back to the Aksumite period. Local tradition records the existence of a ruler called the šum bahri (also íéyyumä bahér, meaning "ruler of the sea"), who controlled trade routes between Massawa and the Christian highlands, and who may originally have been a prefect appointed by the Aksumites. Even after the Sultanate of Dahlak became independent, its sultan continued to be referred to by Abyssinians using the Aksumite title íéyyumä bahér, reflecting the persistence of Ethiopian institutional memory over the coast.[4]

According to historian Richard Pankhurst, it was during the reign of Emperor Zara Yaqob (r. 1433–1468) when the title Bahr Negash ("Ruler of the sea") appeared for the first time.[5] However, it also appears in an obscure land grant of the Zagwe King Tatadim, who ruled during the 11th century. He considered the unnamed Bahr Negash as one of his seyyuman or "appointed ones".[6][7] According to the Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, the older title maýékälä bahér ("middle of the coast"), used during the Zagwe period and still in use during the reign of ʿAmdä Séyon, was abolished by Zara Yaqob, who sought to unify the administrative system of his kingdom. It was his son, Emperor Baeda Maryam I, who subsequently established the specific title of Bahr Negash for the three northern provinces of Angot, Qeda, and Tigray.[8]

Zara Yaqob's chronicle records how, after arriving to the region, he put much effort into consolidating the imperial presence there, placing the Bahr Negash above other local chiefs and eventually making him the sovereign of a territory covering the highlands of Hamasien and Seraye.[5][9] To strengthen the imperial presence in the area, Zara Yaqob also established a military colony consisting of Maya warriors from the south of his realm. These settlers were believed to have terrified the local population and it was said that the "earth trembled at their arrival" and the inhabitants "fled the country in fear".[5]

Francisco Alvares and the early 16th century

In the 1520s, Medri Bahri was visited by the Portuguese traveller and priest Francisco Alvares. The current Bahr Negash bore the name Dori and resided in Debarwa, a town on the very northern edge of the highlands. Dori was an uncle of Emperor Lebna Dengel, to whom he paid tribute.[10] These tributes were traditionally paid with horses and imported cloth and carpets.[11] Dori was said to wield considerable power, with his authority extending from the Hamasien highlands to the port of Hirgigo. He was also a promoter of Christianity, generously gifting the churches and monasteries everything they needed.[12] By the time of Alvares' visit, Dori was engaged in warfare against some Nubians after the latter had killed his son. The Nubians were known as robbers and generally had a rather bad reputation.[13] They originated somewhere five to six days away from Debarwa, possibly Taka (a historical province named after Jebel Taka near modern Kassala).[14][15]

Alvares witnessed the annual geber, or tax, paid by the Bahr Nagash's domains to Lebna Dengel alongside those from three other regions: Tegray, Gojjam and Hadeya. The Bahr Nagash arrived with many lords and troops stationed in his lands, spending the entire first day having horses run and jump before the Emperor, with the remainder of the tribute including silks and cloth from India.[16] The status of the territory was later specified by Lebnä Dengel in a letter to King Manuel I of Portugal, in which he described the Bahr Nagash as "lord as far as Egypt."[17]

Ethiopian-Adal War

The far north was among the last parts of the empire to face the forces of Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi during the Ethiopian-Adal War. Prior to the invasion reaching the region, troops from Särayé had fought alongside the Tigrayan army in the south, where both the Bahr Nagash Zä-Wangel and the shum of Hamasén were killed, and the ruler of Särayé was taken prisoner at Damot.[18] When Ahmad pushed into Tigray in 1535 and captured Aksum, part of his army crossed the Märäb River into Särayé, installing Tédros, a relative of local nobleman Täsfa Le'ul, as a puppet governor answerable to Ahmad's nephew Vizier Abbas. Täsfa Le'ul fiercely opposed the occupation, killing both Tédros and the Adal general Vizier Addolé, whose head was dispatched to the Ethiopian emperor.[19]

Addolé's death prompted Ahmad to launch a punitive campaign into Särayé, where local fighters attempted resistance but were overwhelmed and driven back. The population submitted and agreed to pay tribute, and Ahmad installed new administrators over both Särayé and Hamasén. However, in Tigray the Adalite troops were plagued by a famine and an epidemic that was so severe that a number of Muslim soldiers converted to Christianity. Ahmad eventually recognized that holding the region was unsustainable and withdrew to the southwest in Begmeder.[20]

The damage left by the Muslim occupation was documented by the Portuguese soldier Miguel de Castanhoso upon his arrival in 1541. He found a major church near the coast destroyed and the surrounding land devastated. The villages around Debarwa had been abandoned, their inhabitants having fled into the mountains with their livestock. Local monks emerged from hiding to greet the Portuguese "with crosses in their hands, in solemn procession, praying God for pity", pleading for retribution against those who had ravaged their land.[21]

Ottoman period and Bahr Negash Yeshaq

After the death of Imam Ahmad in 1543, Emperor Gelawdewos soon established control over the country of the Bahr Nagash, where he renewed Emperor Zara Yaqob's land charter in favour of the monastery of Debre Bizen. Gelawdewos also exiled several of the Portuguese who had assisted in the Imam's defeat but were beginning to intrigue against him and attempting to convert the country to Catholicism, sending them to Debarwa, the capital of the Bahr Nagash.[22]

In 1557 the Ottoman Turks conquered the port of Massawa and under Ozdemir Pasha led an expeditionary force inland where they occupied the town of Debarwa. The Turkish troops then built a large fort at Debarwa, containing gold and silver vases, precious stones, rich vestments, and other valuables obtained through looting, extortions from trade, and the imposition of a poll tax on the local population. The local populace, having acquired a sizeable number of firearms, succeeded in defeating the occupying force, killing a Turkish general and sending his head to the Emperor in triumph.[23]

Around this time the Bahr Negash Yeshaq became very powerful due to the access to firearms which were imported through the coast. After the death of Gelawdewos, Yeshaq revolted and attempted to place one of the new emperor's nephews, Tazkaro, on the throne, but was defeated by Emperor Menas. According to James Bruce, upon being defeated, the Bahr Negash "threw himself at the mercy of the Turks" and ceded Debarwa in exchange for their help [24][25][11] Reinforced by Ottoman military support, Yeshaq launched a new campaign against the Emperor. The royal chronicles record that in 1562 the troops of Emperor Menas were defeated by the coalition of Bahr Negash Yeshaq, Özdemir Pasha and some Portuguese led by Francisco Jacome. Menas died the following year in 1563, never having subdued the Bahr Negash.[26]

Sarsa Dengel, the young son of Menas, succeeded to the throne in 1563. He then forgave and made peace with Yeshaq, and presented him with many horses, which his territory was known for having, as well as many imported items, such as luxurious clothes and carpets. The Turks then chose to withdraw from Debarwa, where Yeshaq went to recapture. However, within a few years, Yeshaq revolted again, this time allying with both the Ottomans and Sultan Muhammad ibn Nasir of Harar.[27]

Furious at Yeshaq's repeated treachery, Sarsa Dengel led a campaign into Medri Bahri in 1576. Although Yeshaq's forces, backed by the Turks, were well provisioned with firearms of various kinds including cannon, Sarsa won a decisive victory and Yeshaq was killed in the battle. As historian Merid Wolde Aregay argued, the revolt was not driven by "separatist motives" but by Yeshaq's ambition to influence imperial politics from the northern periphery.[28] The defeat curtailed the broader aspirations of the provincial nobility to break free from the Ethiopian Empire.[29] Sarsa Dengel thereafter reduced the prestige of the Bahr Negash office, which was temporarily merged with the governorship of Tigray.[30]

After Yeshaq's death the Emperor accorded another local chief the title of Bahr Nagash, but the post lost much of its former prestige. Bruce claims that because of Yeshaq's treachery the post "fell into disrepute", and that the standard and drum, the marks of supreme power, were taken from the office. When a new Bahr Nagash was appointed he still had the privilege of being crowned with gold, but had a cloak thrown over him, one side white and the other dark blue, the officer who crowned him admonishing him of what would befall him if he preserved his allegiance, signified by the white side, and of the disgrace and punishment that attended treachery, figured by the colour of mourning.[31] However, according to the chronicles of Emperor Susenyos I, close contacts between the Bahr Nagash and the imperial interior were maintained during his reign; Susenyos married one of his daughters to the Bahr Nagash, a man by the name of Amda Mikael, for political and strategic reasons. During a punitive expedition against a pretender to the throne, Susenyos visited at least six localities north of the Mareb: Hamasien, Seraye, Akele Guzai, the Debarwa district, the Buri Peninsula, and the "country of the Sahos".[32]

After the rains of 1587 the Turks again advanced inland to Debarwa and attacked the Emperor's governor Däjazmach Daharagot, who held the positions of both Bahr Nagash and governor of Tegray simultaneously, putting him to flight with heavy casualties. Särsä Dengel responded by mobilising his forces, and while the Turks were crossing the Märäb River they were ambushed by a local leader named Aquba Mika'el, an act which greatly pleased the monarch, who awarded him the title of Bahr Nagash and sent him gifts including a richly caparisoned mule. Särsä Dengel then advanced to Debarwa and launched a campaign to the coast at Hergigo, where the Turkish commander Kädawred Pasha was struck down. The Turks, realising the impossibility of gaining control of the northern Ethiopian highlands, abandoned the port of Hergigo entirely, handing it over to a local Beja chieftain whom they accorded the title of Na'ib, or Deputy, a title destined to remain in use for over two centuries.[33]

Zemene Mesafint

Emperor Fasilides appointed his son-in-law, Hab Sellus of Hamasien, as the governor of a province known as Bambolo-Mellash, which included Mereb Melash and much of Tigray. However, he abused his wife so violently that she died, after which he would make his way to the Emperor's palace in Gondar to seek forgiveness. Upon arriving in the palace he addressed the Emperor, saying, "Your Majesty, in your great magnanimity, gave me your daughter and appointed me; but when I wished to approach my wife in accordance with nature and the law she rejected my approach; whereupon I, incited by Satan, raised my hand and struck her; and she died as a result of my blow. Because of this misfortunate I stand before Your Majesty." Fasilides, fearing to alienate the people of Hamasien, decided to forgive his son-in-law, declaring that "You did to her what she deserved". But he significantly reduced his fiefdom to just Mereb Melash. Hab Sellus subsequently returned to Hamasien and brought the entire region of Mereb Melash under his authority. He would later rule the province for the next 40 years.[34]

The exact date of the establishment of the Mereb Melash as a distinct administrative unit is not known, though the Encyclopaedia Aethiopica suggests it may have emerged in the 17th century. Portuguese sources of the same period refer to a province called "Marebo", corresponding to the territory of the Mereb Melash. In that period, the province of Tigray was reported to consist of two segments: one governed by the Tigre Makonnen with twelve provincial governors, and the other by the Bahr Negash also with twelve provincial governors, which corresponds to what later became formally known as the Mereb Melash. The Mereb River was consolidated as a firm provincial boundary in the mid-18th century when Bahr Negash Booru Solomon received the government of the Mereb Melash following the partition of the older and larger province of Bambollo Melash.[35]

The decline of the Gondarine monarchy coincided with the rise of Ras Mika'él Sehul of Tigray, who, as ruler of the north, inherited the imperial interest in the land of the Bahr Nagash and Massawa. In 1766, he crossed the Marab river to control Hamasen and Saraye, residing briefly at Debarwa. By the end of the 18th century, Ras Wäldä Sellasé of Tegray held nominal sovereignty over the region, and when he planned an expedition to Saraye and Hamasen in 1800, people from these districts arrived bearing tribute. Pankhurst concludes that the country of the Bahr Nägash "thus remained as for so long in the past a major tributary territory."[36]

In November 1769, the Scottish traveller James Bruce became acquainted with the Bahr Negash while staying in the village of Hadawi (near Segeneiti). He described the unnamed ruler as a "brave, but simple man" and a deputy of Ras Mikael Sehul, but he also considered the land to be a "barbarous and unhappy country." Bruce later revealed that the influence of the Bahr Negash had significantly declined due to the loss of Massawa and Hirgigo to the Turks, stating that it was formerly of great importance; "Before the Abyssinians lost the maritime district of Arkeeko, and the port of Masuah, the office of Baharnagash was one of the most important in the kingdom. It is now nearly a nominal one, under the governor of Tigre." He also reports that the district had only been recently incorporated into the province of Tigray by Ras Mikael Sehul with the use of "violence and oppression."[37][38][39]

The integration of Mereb Melash into the Ethiopian imperial system is further confirmed by documentary evidence: the province is listed in the tax records of Emperor Tewodros II as one of the northern provinces paying tribute to the crown, alongside Welkait and other Tigrinya-speaking territories not considered part of Tigray proper.[40]

The core region of the Mereb Melash, Hamasen, was for centuries led mostly by two rival families from the villages of Hazega and Tsazega. The local elite groups enjoyed relative independence.[41] Despite this, Tégrayan lords including Wolde Selassie, Sabagadis Woldu and Wube Haile Maryam at various points subdued and exercised authority over the region.[42] From the late 18th to mid 19th centuries, there was a long-standing rivalry between the rival Hazega and Tsazega villages. Ato Tewoldemedhin of Tsazega constantly fought to reduce his rivals to obedience; his son, Hailu was eventually forced to flee to Gondar to seek the support of Tewodros II. In 1860 he was reinstated as ruler of Hamasien and Seraye, but in Hazega he had to face another strong opponent: Woldemichael Solomon, who was able to defeat him and seize control of Hamasien by 1868.[43]

Egyptian-Ethiopian War

Mereb Melash would gain international significance during the reign of Emperor Yohannes IV when it was defended against Egyptian expansionism during the Egyptian–Ethiopian War. In December 1875, a local ruler of the province, Woldemichael Solomon, submitted to the Egyptians at Massawa. This allowed the Egyptians to occupy the entire province with minimal resistance and build a large fort at Gura. However, Ras Alula would defeat the Egyptians at the Battle of Gura, forcing them to withdraw from the province.[44]

Following this victory, Ras Alula was declared the governor of Mereb Melash and was authorized to crush the opposition in the province. Which resulted in the defeat of the followers of Woldemichael Solomon. But, Woldemichael , with Egyptian backing, repeatedly regained control of the Mereb Melash whenever Alula was recalled south to assist Emperor Yohannes, holding the province from April 1877 until September 1878 before again retreating when new governors arrived. In December 1878, Woldemichael submitted to Emperor Yohannes. He was then confirmed as Ras in an effort to appease him, remaining as governor under Alula's authority.[45]

Finally in December 1879, Alula imprisoned Woldemichael and convinced Yohannes to have him jailed in Tigray, eliminating the last hereditary local chief of Hamasen. Alula then imposed central government and experimented with land reform aimed at establishing his followers from Tigray, many originating from his home region of Tämben, as Hamasen's new elite, while cultivating commercial relations with Muslim traders and attempting to renew trade with Massawa.[46]

The enduring prestige of the Bahr Negash office was acknowledged even by Ethiopia's rivals during this period. When Egypt established its own Red Sea province in 1866, its deputy in the Semhar plains was deliberately given the new title Naýib Al-Bahr, styled directly after the Bahr Negash title, reflecting Egyptian recognition of the institution's historical legitimacy.[47]

Hewett Treaty and Italian occupation

In June 1884, the Hewett Treaty was signed, which allowed the Ethiopians to gain free access to Massawa in exchange for the rescue of Egyptian garrisons besieged by the Mahdists. Under the treaty Ethiopia also received the surrender of the Bogos district, which had been held by the Egyptians, back to Alula's government.[48] Ras Alula had been actively involved in the formulation of the treaty and according to British reports was fully in favour of it. Emperor Yohannes IV, however, was reportedly skeptical and only agreed to meet with the British mission in the final week of May, signing on 3 June 1884. The Encyclopaedia Aethiopica notes that the British ultimately interpreted the treaty wording as an Ethiopian abandonment of their claim to Massawa, a reading that served British strategic interests in preventing French domination of the Red Sea by allowing Italy to fill the vacuum left by the Egyptian retreat.[49]

In late 1884, recognising the new opportunities presented by the Hewett Treaty, Alula moved his capital within the Mereb Melash from Addi Taqlay to the small trade centre of Asmara, which was better positioned for developing the commercial route to Massawa.[50]

Alula tried to reach the Egyptians at Kassala, but as the Italians landed at Massawa and began their encroachment inland, Alula was forced to abandon this effort. Frustrated and distrustful of the local tribes, Alula permitted his men to massacre many of the Nara and Kunama tribesmen in November 1886 and also embittered the Beni-Amer.[51] In January 1887, Alula attacked the Italians at Saati, but was beaten back with heavy losses. He subsequently ambushed an Italian battalion sent to reinforce Saati at the Battle of Dogali.

A key factor in the fall of Mereb Melash was internal betrayal. Debeb Araya, a Tigrayan rival of Alula who had long resented Yohannes favouring an outsider over the established noble families, had been collaborating first with the Egyptians and later with the Italians. In February 1888, he persuaded Yohannes that Italian aggression was the result of Alula's over-ambition, contributing to Yohannes's decision to recall Alula southward to face the Mahdists. With Mereb Melash thus left undefended, Debeb entered Asmara in February 1889 and killed Alula's deputy. The Italians subsequently entered Asmara without firing a single shot and proceeded uninterrupted to the Mareb River.[52]

Formation of Italian Eritrea

Following the death of Yohannes at the Battle of Gallabat, Tigray was completely exhausted from decades of uninterrupted wars. It could no longer challenge the Italians to the north or the Amharas to the south. Menelik II was later recognized as the new emperor, thus cementing Shoan domination over Ethiopia. The loss of Mereb Melash was recognized by Menelik in the Treaty of Wuchale.[53]

In 1890 (royal decree of 1 January 1890, n. 6592) Eritrea was officially declared an Italian colony, with its capital in Massawa. Its first governor was General Baldassarre Orero, replaced a few months later by General Antonio Gandolfi, a trusted friend of Francesco Crispi. The colony was named Eritrea (which came from the ancient Greek name of the Red Sea) by plenipotentiary minister Carlo Dossi, replacing the previous intended name of "New Ethiopia".[54]

Notes

  1. ^ Also known as Baharanegash, Ma'ikele Bahr or Bambolo Melash
  2. ^ The Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, the most authoritative scholarly reference on Ethiopian history, explicitly describes Mereb Melash as "the name of a province north of the Märäb river" (Vol. 3, p. 773). The province is furthermore listed in the tax records of Emperor Tewodros II as a tribute-paying territory of the Ethiopian crown. Some modern sources refer to Medri Bahri as a kingdom: * Smidt, Wolbert (2012). "History, Historical Arguments and the Ethio-Eritrean conflict: between xenophobic approaches and an ideology of unity". Stichproben. 12 (22): 109–112. * Ryseck, Laura (2014). The search for national identity in postcolonial, multicommunal states: the cases of Eritrea and Lebanon,1941-1991. The London School of Economics and Political Science. p. 46. * Erlich, Haggai (2024-01-15). Greater Tigray and the Mysterious Magnetism of Ethiopia. Oxford University Press. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-19-776933-1. * Idris, Mussa (2017). "Analytical views on the cultural and spatialized narratives of Asmara". The African Metropolis. Routledge. pp. 57–73. doi:10.4324/9781315157306-3. ISBN 9781315157306.

References

  1. ^ Uhlig, Siegbert. Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: Volume 3: He-N. p. 773.
  2. ^ G. Marcus, Harold (1994). A History of Ethiopia. University of California Press. p. 27. ISBN 9780520925427.
  3. ^ Uhlig, Siegbert. Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: Volume 1: A-C. pp. 444–445.
  4. ^ Uhlig, Siegbert. Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: Volume 3: He-N. p. 849.
  5. ^ Pankhurst 1997, p. 101.
  6. ^ Derat 2020, pp. 43–44.
  7. ^ Phillipson, David W. (2023). A Companion to Medieval Ethiopia and Eritrea. Oxford University Press. p. 43. ISBN 9780197267870.
  8. ^ Uhlig, Siegbert. Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: Volume 1: A-C. pp. 443–444.
  9. ^ Connel & Killion 2011, p. 54.
  10. ^ Pankhurst 1997, pp. 102–104.
  11. ^ Pankhurst 1997, p. 270.
  12. ^ Pankhurst 1997, pp. 102–103.
  13. ^ Pankhurst 1997, pp. 154–155.
  14. ^ Werner 2013, pp. 149–150 & note 14. P. L. Shinnie suggests an origination from the area around Old Dongola, but could this region not be reached from Eritrea within five - six days of travelling time.
  15. ^ Connel & Killion 2011, p. 96.
  16. ^ Pankhurst, Richard (1997). The Ethiopian Borderlands. Red Sea Press. p. 103.
  17. ^ Pankhurst, Richard (1997). The Ethiopian Borderlands. Red Sea Press. p. 104.
  18. ^ Pankhurst, Richard (1997). The Ethiopian Borderlands. Red Sea Press. p. 218.
  19. ^ Pankhurst, Richard (1997). The Ethiopian Borderlands. Red Sea Press. pp. 218–219.
  20. ^ Pankhurst, Richard (1997). The Ethiopian Borderlands. Red Sea Press. pp. 218–219.
  21. ^ Pankhurst, Richard (1997). The Ethiopian Borderlands. Red Sea Press. pp. 219–220.
  22. ^ Pankhurst, Richard (1997). The Ethiopian Borderlands. Red Sea Press. pp. 233–234.
  23. ^ Pankhurst, Richard (1997). The Ethiopian Borderlands. Red Sea Press. pp. 234–235.
  24. ^ Pankhurst 1997, p. 236.
  25. ^ Pankhurst, Richard (1982). History Of Ethiopian Towns. p. 68. ISBN 9783515032049.
  26. ^ Uhlig, Siegbert (2005). Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: Volume 2: D-Ha. Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 322.
  27. ^ Pankhurst, Richard (1997). The Ethiopian Borderlands. Red Sea Press. p. 237.
  28. ^ Pankhurst, Richard (1997). The Ethiopian Borderlands. Red Sea Press. p. 237.
  29. ^ Oliver, Ronald (1975). The Cambridge History of Africa Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. p. 546. ISBN 9780521204132.
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  31. ^ Pankhurst, Richard (1997). The Ethiopian Borderlands. Red Sea Press. p. 238.
  32. ^ Pankhurst 1997, p. 395.
  33. ^ Pankhurst, Richard (1997). The Ethiopian Borderlands. Red Sea Press. pp. 238–239.
  34. ^ Pankhurst 1997, p. 402.
  35. ^ Uhlig, Siegbert (2007). Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: Volume 3: He-N. Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 773.
  36. ^ Pankhurst, Richard (1997). The Ethiopian Borderlands. Red Sea Press. pp. 413–414.
  37. ^ Pankhurst 1997, p. 413.
  38. ^ Bruce, James. Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile, In the Years 1768, 1769, 1770, 1771, 1772 and 1773. p. 95.
  39. ^ Bruce, James (1860). Bruce's Travels and Adventures in Abyssinia. p. 72.
  40. ^ Uhlig, Siegbert. Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: Volume 3: He-N. p. 773.; Pankhurst, Richard (1978). Tax Records and Inventories of Emperor Téwodros of Ethiopia (1855–1868). London. p. 166.
  41. ^ Uhlig, Siegbert (2005). Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: Volume 2: D-Ha. Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 358.
  42. ^ Pankhurst, Richard (1997). The Ethiopian Borderlands. Red Sea Press. pp. 413–414.
  43. ^ Longrigg, Stephen H. (1945). Short History Of Eritrea. p. 100.
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  47. ^ Uhlig, Siegbert. Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: Volume 1: A-C. pp. 444–445.; Ghada Hashem Talhami, Suakin and Massawa under Egyptian Rule, 1865–1885, Washington D.C. 1979, p. 59.
  48. ^ Uhlig, Siegbert (2007). Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: Volume 3: He-N. Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 774.
  49. ^ Uhlig, Siegbert. Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: Volume 3: He-N. pp. 25–26.
  50. ^ Uhlig, Siegbert (2007). Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: Volume 3: He-N. Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 774.
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  52. ^ Uhlig, Siegbert. Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: Volume 1: A-C. pp. 212–213.
  53. ^ Caulk, Richard (2002). "Between the Jaws of Hyenas": A Diplomatic History of Ethiopia (1876-1896). Harrassowitz Verlag, Wiesbaden. pp. 129, 215.
  54. ^ F. Lioce, Dalla colonia facile alla colonia Eritrea. Cultura e ideologia in Carlo Dossi, Loffredo, Napoli, 2014

Sources

  • Connel, Dan & Killion, Tom (2011). Historical Dictionary of Eritrea. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 9780810875050.
  • Derat, Marie-Laure (2020). "Before the Solomonids: Crisis, Renaissance and the Emergence of the Zagwe Dynasty (Seventh–Thirteenth Centuries)". A Companion to Medieval Ethiopia and Eritrea. Samantha Kelly (ed.). Brill. pp. 31–56.
  • Pankhurst, Richard (1997). The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century. The Red Sea Press. ISBN 9780932415196.
  • Tronvoll, Kjetil (1998). Mai Weini, a Highland Village in Eritrea: A Study of the People. Red Sea Press. ISBN 9781569020593.
  • Werner, Roland (2013). Das Christentum in Nubien. Geschichte und Gestalt einer afrikanischen Kirche

Further reading

  • d'Avray, Anthony (1996). Lords of the Red Sea. The History of a Red Sea Society from the Sixteenth to the Nineteenth Centuries. Harrassowitz.