This article is about the river. For other uses, see Danube (disambiguation).
"Istrus" redirects here. For the Greek figure, see Istrus (mythology). For the ancient city, see Histria (ancient city).
Danube
CountriesGermany · Austria · Slovakia · Hungary · Croatia · Serbia · Bulgaria · Romania · Moldova · Ukraine
CitiesUlm · Ingolstadt · Regensburg · Passau · Linz · Vienna · Bratislava · Győr · Komárno/Komárom · Budapest · Dunaújváros · Mohács · Apatin · Vukovar · Ilok · Bačka Palanka · Novi Sad · Sremski Karlovci · Belgrade · Pančevo · Smederevo · Drobeta-Turnu Severin · Vidin · Calafat · Giurgiu · Ruse · Silistra · Călărași · Brăila · Galați · Reni · Izmail · Kiliia · Tulcea · Sulina
Length2,850 km
Width minMiddle Danube (Iron Gates) 150 m (490 ft); Lower Danube (Brăila) 400 m (1,300 ft)[1]
Width avgUpper Danube 300 m (980 ft); Middle Danube 400-800 m; Lower Danube 900-1,000 m[2][1][3]
Width maxMiddle Danube 1,500 m (4,900 ft); Lower Danube 1,700 m (5,600 ft)[3][1]
Depth min1 m (3.3 ft) (Upper Danube)[3]
Depth avgUpper Danube 8 m (26 ft); Middle Danube 6-10 m, 53 m (174 ft) (Iron Gates); Lower Danube 9 m (30 ft)[2][1][3][4]
Depth maxMiddle Danube (Iron Gates) 90 m (300 ft); Lower Danube 34 m (112 ft)[1]
River systemDanube
ProgressionBlack Sea
Discharge1 locationDanube Delta
Discharge1 min1,790 m3/s (63,000 cu ft/s)[5][6]
Discharge1 avg(Period: 1931–2020)6,452 m3/s (227,900 cu ft/s)[6][7]
Discharge1 max15,900 m3/s (560,000 cu ft/s)[5][6]
Discharge5 locationPassau (Bavaria, 30 km before town)
Discharge5 avg(Period: 1931–2020)580 m3/s (20,000 cu ft/s)[6]
Discharge4 locationVienna
Discharge4 avg(Period: 1931–2020)1,920 m3/s (68,000 cu ft/s)[6]
Discharge3 locationBudapest
Discharge3 avg(Period: 1931–2020)2,350 m3/s (83,000 cu ft/s)[6]
Discharge2 locationBelgrade
Discharge2 avg(Period: 1931–2020)5,300 m3/s (190,000 cu ft/s)[6]
Source 1Breg
Source1 locationFurtwangen im Schwarzwald, Baden-Württemberg, Germany
Source1 coordinates48°05′44″N 08°09′18″E
Source1 elevation1,078 m (3,537 ft)
Source 2Brigach
Source2 locationSt. Georgen im Schwarzwald, Baden-Württemberg, Germany
Source2 coordinates48°06′24″N 08°16′51″E
Source2 elevation940 m (3,080 ft)
Source confluence locationDonaueschingen, Baden-Württemberg, Germany
Source confluence coordinates47°57′03″N 08°31′13″E
MouthDanube Delta
Mouth locationRomania
Mouth coordinates45°13′3″N 29°45′41″E
Basin size801,463 km²

The Danube (/ˈdæn.juːb/ DAN-yoob; see also other names) is a river in Europe, the second-longest after the Volga in Russia.[8] It flows through Central and Southeastern Europe, from the Black Forest of Germany[9] south through the Danube Delta in Romania into the Black Sea.[9] A large and historically important river, it was once a frontier of the Roman Empire. In the 21st century, it connects ten European countries, running through their territories or marking a border. Originating in Germany, the Danube flows southeast for 2,850 km (1,770 mi), passing through or bordering Austria, Slovakia, Hungary, Croatia, Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria, Moldova, and Ukraine.[10] Among the many cities on the river are four national capitals: Vienna, Bratislava,[11] Budapest,[12] and Belgrade. Its drainage basin amounts to 817,000 km2 (315,000 sq mi) and extends into nine more countries.

The Danube's longest headstream, the Breg, rises in Furtwangen im Schwarzwald, while the river carries its name from its source confluence in the palace park in Donaueschingen onwards. Since ancient times, the Danube has been a traditional trade route in Europe. Today, 2,415 km (1,501 mi) of its total length are navigable. The Danube is linked to the North Sea via the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal, connecting the Danube at Kelheim with the Main at Bamberg. The river is also an important source of hydropower and drinking water.

The Danube river basin is home to such fish species as pike, zander, huchen, wels catfish, burbot and tench. It is also home to numerous diverse carp and sturgeon, as well as salmon and trout. A few species of euryhaline fish, such as European seabass, mullet, and eel, inhabit the Danube Delta and the lower portion of the river.

Names and etymology

Today the river carries its name from its source confluence in Donaueschingen, Germany, to its discharge into the Black Sea via the Danube Delta in Romania and Ukraine.

The river was known to the ancient Greeks as the Istros (Ἴστρος)[13] from a root possibly also encountered in the ancient name of the Dniester (Danaster in Latin, Tiras in Greek) and akin to Iranic turos 'swift' and Sanskrit iṣiras (इषिरस्) 'swift', from the PIE isro-, sreu 'to flow'.[14]

In the Middle Ages, the Greek Tiras was borrowed into Italian as Tyrlo and into Turkic languages as Tyrla; the latter was further borrowed into Romanian as a regionalism (Turlă).[14]

The Thraco-Phrygian name was Matoas,[15] "the bringer of luck".[16]

The Middle Mongolian name for the Danube was transliterated as Tho-na in 1829 by Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusat.[17]

The modern languages spoken in the Danube basin all use names derived from the Latin name Danubius:

LanguageNamePronunciation (IPA)Flow sequence[a]
LatinDanubius, DānuviusN/A
GermanDonauˈdoːnaʊ1 Germany
2 Austria
BavarianDoanaN/A
SilesianDōnajN/A
Upper SorbianDunajˈdunajN/A
CzechDunajˈdunajN/A
SlovakDunajˈdunaj3 Slovakia
PolishDunajˈdunajN/A
HungarianDunaˈdunɒ4 Hungary
SlovenianDonavaˈdóːnaʋaN/A
Serbo–CroatianDunav / Дунавdǔna(ː)v5 Croatia
6 Serbia
MacedonianДунавˈdunafN/A
RomanianDunăre,
definite form Dunărea		ˈdunəre, ˈdunəre̯a[18]7 Romania
9 Moldova
BulgarianДунав (Dúnav)ˈdunɐf8 Bulgaria
UkrainianДунай (Dunáy)dʊˈnɑj10 Ukraine
GreekΔούναβης (Doúnavis)ˈðunavisN/A
FrenchDanubedanybN/A
ItalianDanubiodaˈnuːbjoN/A
PortugueseDanúbiopt-PTN/A
SpanishDanubiodaˈnuβjoN/A
RussianДунай (Dunáy)dʊˈnajN/A
TurkishTunatuˈnaN/A
RomanshDanubiN/A
AlbanianDanub,
definite form: Danubi[19]		N/A

Etymology

Danube is an Old European river name derived from the Celtic 'Danu' or 'Don'[20] (both Celtic gods), which itself derived from the Proto-Indo-European *deh₂nu. Other European river names from the same root include the Dunaj, Dzvina/Daugava, Don, Donets, Dnieper, Dniestr, Dysna and Tana/Deatnu. In Rigvedic Sanskrit, danu (दनु) means "fluid, dewdrop" and danuja (दनु-ज) means "born from danu" or "born from dew-drops". In Avestan, the same word means "river". The Finnish word for Danube is Tonava, which is most likely derived from the name of the river in German, Donau. Its Sámi name Deatnu means "Great River". It is possible that dānu in Scythian as in Avestan was a generic word for "river": Dnieper and Dniestr, from Danapris and Danastius, are presumed to continue Scythian *dānu apara "far river" and *dānu nazdya- "near river", respectively.[21]

In Latin, the Danube was variously known as Danubius, Danuvius, Ister[22] or Hister. The Latin name is masculine, as are all its Slavic names, except Slovene (the name of the Rhine is also masculine in Latin, most of the Slavic languages, as well as in German). The German Donau (Early Modern German Donaw, Tonaw,[23] Middle High German Tuonowe)[24] is feminine, as it has been re-interpreted as containing the suffix -ouwe "wetland".

Romanian differs from other surrounding languages in designating the river with a feminine term, Dunărea (ˈdunəre̯a).[14] This form was not inherited from Latin, although Romanian is a Romance language.[18] To explain the loss of the Latin name, scholars who suppose that Romanian developed near the large river propose[18] that the Romanian name descends from a hypothetical Thracian *Donaris. The Proto-Indo-European root of this presumed name is related to the Iranic word "don-"/"dan-", while the supposed suffix -aris is encountered in the ancient name of the Ialomița River, Naparis, and in the unidentified Miliare river mentioned by Jordanes in his Getica.[14] Gábor Vékony says that this hypothesis is not plausible, because the Greeks borrowed the Istros form from the native Thracians.[18] He proposes that the Romanian name is a loanword from a Turkic language (Cuman or Pecheneg).[18]

Geography

Classified as an international waterway, it originates in the town of Donaueschingen, in the Black Forest of Germany, at the confluence of the rivers Brigach and Breg. The Danube then flows southeast for about 2,730 km (1,700 mi), passing through four capital cities (Vienna, Bratislava, Budapest, and Belgrade) before emptying into the Black Sea via the Danube Delta in Romania and Ukraine.

International status

Once a long-standing frontier of the Roman Empire, the river passes through or touches the borders of 10 countries. Its drainage basin extends into nine more (ten if Kosovo is included).[25]

Flow
seq.		CountryBasin
area[25]		Local
name		Points of interest
1Germany7%DonauDonaueschingen – source
2Austria10%Vienna – capital
3Slovakia5.9%DunajBratislava – capital
4Hungary11.6%DunaBudapest – capital
5Croatia4.4%Dunav
6Serbia10.2%Belgrade – capital
7Romania29%DunăreaDanube Delta – Black Sea
8Bulgaria[b]5.9%Дунав
9Moldova1.6%Dunărea
10Ukraine3.8%ДунайDanube Delta – Black Sea

Drainage basin

In addition to the bordering countries (see above), the drainage basin includes parts of nine more countries: Bosnia and Herzegovina (4.6% of the basin area), the Czech Republic (2.9%), Slovenia (2.0%), Montenegro (0.9%), Switzerland (0.2%), Italy (<0.15%), Poland (<0.1%), North Macedonia (<0.1%) and Albania (<0.1%).[25] The total drainage basin is 801,463 km2 (309,447 sq mi) in area, and is home to 83 million people.[26] The highest point of the drainage basin is the summit of Piz Bernina at the Italy–Switzerland border, at 4,049 m (13,284 ft).[27] The Danube river basin is divided into three main parts, separated by "gates" where the river is forced to cut through mountainous sections:[26]

Discharge

Mean annual discharge on the hydrological stations (period from 2000 to 2025)
YearMean annual discharge in m3/s (cu ft/s)
Reni
Isaccea		SilistraPristolBatina
Bezdan		Nagymaros SzobBratislava
Wolfsthal		Untergries-bach
20006,580.6 (232,390)6,198.1 (218,880)5,585.9 (197,260)2,669.4 (94,270)2,627.2 (92,780)2,337.9 (82,560)1,667.2 (58,880)
20016,304.3 (222,630)5,919.4 (209,040)5,421.8 (191,470)2,432.5 (85,900)2,382.3 (84,130)2,231.3 (78,800)1,627.6 (57,480)
20026,837.1 (241,450)6,100.1 (215,420)5,392 (190,400)2,824.9 (99,760)2,855.6 (100,840)2,683 (94,700)1,803.9 (63,700)
20035,021 (177,300)4,571 (161,400)3,825 (135,100)1,786 (63,100)1,722 (60,800)1,647 (58,200)1,153 (40,700)
20046,524 (230,400)6,088 (215,000)5,233 (184,800)2,025 (71,500)2,013 (71,100)1,852 (65,400)1,213 (42,800)
20058,711 (307,600)7,659 (270,500)6,396 (225,900)2,420 (85,000)2,329 (82,200)2,115 (74,700)1,359 (48,000)
20068,428 (297,600)7,370 (260,000)6,616 (233,600)2,110 (75,000)2,503 (88,400)2,186 (77,200)1,396 (49,300)
20075,626 (198,700)5,195 (183,500)4,512 (159,300)2,182 (77,100)2,136 (75,400)1,916 (67,700)1,287 (45,400)
20085,909 (208,700)5,358 (189,200)4,736 (167,300)2,163 (76,400)2,079 (73,400)1,876 (66,300)1,339 (47,300)
20096,492 (229,300)5,990 (212,000)5,412 (191,100)2,607 (92,100)2,441 (86,200)2,186 (77,200)1,433 (50,600)
20109,598 (339,000)8,515 (300,700)7,424 (262,200)2,879 (101,700)2,615 (92,300)2,130 (75,000)1,420 (50,000)
20115,303 (187,300)4,827 (170,500)4,182 (147,700)2,000 (71,000)1,882 (66,500)1,700 (60,000)1,218 (43,000)
20125,053 (178,400)4,665 (164,700)4,321 (152,600)2,240 (79,000)2,216 (78,300)2,120 (75,000)1,517 (53,600)
20137,164 (253,000)6,558 (231,600)5,946 (210,000)2,863 (101,100)2,684 (94,800)2,417 (85,400)1,671 (59,000)
20147,446 (263,000)6,901 (243,700)5,756 (203,300)2,198 (77,600)2,036 (71,900)1,788 (63,100)1,237 (43,700)
20156,138 (216,800)5,722 (202,100)4,971 (175,500)2,030 (72,000)1,903 (67,200)1,629 (57,500)1,240 (44,000)
20166,465 (228,300)5,993 (211,600)5,339 (188,500)2,261 (79,800)2,196 (77,600)1,944 (68,700)1,412 (49,900)
20175,202 (183,700)4,813 (170,000)4,270 (151,000)2,143 (75,700)2,041 (72,100)1,844 (65,100)1,307 (46,200)
20186,487.8 (229,110)5,875.5 (207,490)4,891 (172,700)1,906.3 (67,320)1,808.1 (63,850)1,644.1 (58,060)1,227.8 (43,360)
20195,579 (197,000)5,168 (182,500)4,593 (162,200)2,253 (79,600)2,114 (74,700)1,962 (69,300)1,446 (51,100)
20204,893.5 (172,810)4,659 (164,500)4,095 (144,600)2,215 (78,200)2,026 (71,500)1,841 (65,000)1,285 (45,400)
20215,998 (211,800)5,505 (194,400)4,696 (165,800)2,178 (76,900)2,028 (71,600)1,838 (64,900)1,304 (46,100)
20224,373 (154,400)4,107 (145,000)3,633 (128,300)2,180 (77,000)1,751 (61,800)1,557 (55,000)1,134 (40,000)
20236,665 (235,400)6,267 (221,300)5,534 (195,400)2,240 (79,000)2,264 (80,000)1,968 (69,500)1,443 (51,000)
20245,776.4 (203,990)2,690 (95,000)
20254,091.4 (144,490)
Source:[3][28][29][30][31]
Multiannual average, minimum and maximum discharge (water period from 1876 to 2010)
StationDischarge (m3/s)Discharge (cu ft/s)
MinMeanMaxMinMeanMax
Ceatal Izmail1,8896,48914,67366,700229,200518,200
Reni, Isaccea1,8056,56414,82063,700231,800523,000
Zimnicea, Svishtov1,4116,01814,51049,800212,500512,000
Orșova1,6725,57213,32459,000196,800470,500
Veliko Gradište1,4615,55014,15251,600196,000499,800
Pančevo1,4545,31013,08051,300188,000462,000
Bogojevo9592,8898,15333,900102,000287,900
Bezdan, Batina7492,3537,04326,50083,100248,700
Mohács6672,3367,22723,60082,500255,200
Nagymaros, Szob6282,3337,05722,20082,400249,200
Bratislava6332,0597,32422,40072,700258,600
Vienna5061,9176,06217,90067,700214,100
Krems an der Donau5961,8455,98621,00065,200211,400
Linz4681,4514,78316,50051,200168,900
Hofkirchen2116381,9437,50022,50068,600
Regensburg1284441,3304,50015,70047,000
Ingolstadt833129652,90011,00034,100
Ulm6381532101,3005,400
Source:[32][7]
Simulated water and suspended sediment results from climate-driven decadal study (with STD through specific decade)
Period (CE)ScenarioPTQS
mmin°C°Fm3/scu ft/smetric tons
(millions)		short tons
(millions)
LIA
1530–1540Cool/dry794 millimetres31.3 in9.0 °C48.2 °F6,207 cubic metres per second219,200 cu ft/s72.9 tonnes80.4 short tons
1650–1660Cool/wet885 millimetres34.8 in8.4 °C47.1 °F7,929 cubic metres per second280,000 cu ft/s67.3 tonnes74.2 short tons
1709–1719Warm/wet861 millimetres33.9 in8.3 °C46.9 °F7,616 cubic metres per second269,000 cu ft/s52.9 tonnes58.3 short tons
1770–1780Warm/dry865 millimetres34.1 in8.9 °C48.0 °F7,728 cubic metres per second272,900 cu ft/s74.1 tonnes81.7 short tons
Modern
1940–1950Cool/dry778 millimetres30.6 in8.9 °C48.0 °F7,209 cubic metres per second254,600 cu ft/s55.0 tonnes60.6 short tons
1960–1970Cool/wet850 millimetres33 in8.8 °C47.8 °F7,399 cubic metres per second261,300 cu ft/s73.0 tonnes80.5 short tons
1975–1985Warm/wet818 millimetres32.2 in9.0 °C48.2 °F7,186 cubic metres per second253,800 cu ft/s77.8 tonnes85.8 short tons
1990–2000Warm/dry790 millimetres31 in9.5 °C49.1 °F5,068 cubic metres per second179,000 cu ft/s73.8 tonnes81.4 short tons
P – Simulated average precipitation in the Danube basin; T – Simulated average temperature in the Danube basin; Q – Simulated average discharge in the river Danube at delta; S – Simulated sediment load in the river Danube at delta;
Source:[33]

Discharge chronology

Historical average flow to the present day; Measured and reconstructed average water flows from 1742. The reconstructed and observed streamflow (Q – m3/s) at Ceatal Izmail for the 1742 to 2025.
Yearm3/scu ft/sYearm3/scu ft/sYearm3/scu ft/sYearm3/scu ft/sYearm3/scu ft/sYearm3/scu ft/s
Reconstructed
17425,780 cubic metres per second204,000 cu ft/s17516,760 cubic metres per second239,000 cu ft/s17616,470 cubic metres per second228,000 cu ft/s17719,700 cubic metres per second340,000 cu ft/s17815,830 cubic metres per second206,000 cu ft/s17915,540 cubic metres per second196,000 cu ft/s
17435,355 cubic metres per second189,100 cu ft/s17527,090 cubic metres per second250,000 cu ft/s17626,510 cubic metres per second230,000 cu ft/s17726,050 cubic metres per second214,000 cu ft/s17826,470 cubic metres per second228,000 cu ft/s17926,930 cubic metres per second245,000 cu ft/s
17445,370 cubic metres per second190,000 cu ft/s17534,980 cubic metres per second176,000 cu ft/s17635,950 cubic metres per second210,000 cu ft/s17734,600 cubic metres per second160,000 cu ft/s17837,930 cubic metres per second280,000 cu ft/s17937,800 cubic metres per second280,000 cu ft/s
17454,940 cubic metres per second174,000 cu ft/s17546,330 cubic metres per second224,000 cu ft/s17646,280 cubic metres per second222,000 cu ft/s17746,150 cubic metres per second217,000 cu ft/s17848,400 cubic metres per second300,000 cu ft/s17945,230 cubic metres per second185,000 cu ft/s
17467,140 cubic metres per second252,000 cu ft/s17556,840 cubic metres per second242,000 cu ft/s17656,130 cubic metres per second216,000 cu ft/s17756,060 cubic metres per second214,000 cu ft/s17857,610 cubic metres per second269,000 cu ft/s17956,530 cubic metres per second231,000 cu ft/s
17475,850 cubic metres per second207,000 cu ft/s17566,370 cubic metres per second225,000 cu ft/s17668,530 cubic metres per second301,000 cu ft/s17766,320 cubic metres per second223,000 cu ft/s17866,570 cubic metres per second232,000 cu ft/s17966,460 cubic metres per second228,000 cu ft/s
17486,840 cubic metres per second242,000 cu ft/s17576,830 cubic metres per second241,000 cu ft/s17676,850 cubic metres per second242,000 cu ft/s17775,530 cubic metres per second195,000 cu ft/s17876,980 cubic metres per second246,000 cu ft/s17976,700 cubic metres per second240,000 cu ft/s
17496,690 cubic metres per second236,000 cu ft/s17588,410 cubic metres per second297,000 cu ft/s17688,400 cubic metres per second300,000 cu ft/s17787,470 cubic metres per second264,000 cu ft/s17885,860 cubic metres per second207,000 cu ft/s17986,560 cubic metres per second232,000 cu ft/s
17505,180 cubic metres per second183,000 cu ft/s17595,520 cubic metres per second195,000 cu ft/s17695,720 cubic metres per second202,000 cu ft/s17796,600 cubic metres per second230,000 cu ft/s17897,190 cubic metres per second254,000 cu ft/s17999,590 cubic metres per second339,000 cu ft/s
17606,840 cubic metres per second242,000 cu ft/s177010,700 cubic metres per second380,000 cu ft/s17806,990 cubic metres per second247,000 cu ft/s17906,940 cubic metres per second245,000 cu ft/s18006,150 cubic metres per second217,000 cu ft/s
5,905 (208,500)6,597 (233,000)7,154 (252,600)6,547 (231,200)6,978 (246,400)6,749 (238,300)
18017,310 cubic metres per second258,000 cu ft/s18118,220 cubic metres per second290,000 cu ft/s18216,390 cubic metres per second226,000 cu ft/s18316,670 cubic metres per second236,000 cu ft/s18416,210 cubic metres per second219,000 cu ft/s18517,350 cubic metres per second260,000 cu ft/s
18026,590 cubic metres per second233,000 cu ft/s18125,230 cubic metres per second185,000 cu ft/s18225,700 cubic metres per second200,000 cu ft/s18324,820 cubic metres per second170,000 cu ft/s18425,340 cubic metres per second189,000 cu ft/s18526,550 cubic metres per second231,000 cu ft/s
18036,870 cubic metres per second243,000 cu ft/s18136,680 cubic metres per second236,000 cu ft/s18236,520 cubic metres per second230,000 cu ft/s18335,350 cubic metres per second189,000 cu ft/s18436,710 cubic metres per second237,000 cu ft/s18537,800 cubic metres per second280,000 cu ft/s
18046,220 cubic metres per second220,000 cu ft/s18147,290 cubic metres per second257,000 cu ft/s18246,420 cubic metres per second227,000 cu ft/s18346,470 cubic metres per second228,000 cu ft/s18446,960 cubic metres per second246,000 cu ft/s18545,060 cubic metres per second179,000 cu ft/s
18057,010 cubic metres per second248,000 cu ft/s18156,640 cubic metres per second234,000 cu ft/s18258,040 cubic metres per second284,000 cu ft/s18357,040 cubic metres per second249,000 cu ft/s18457,440 cubic metres per second263,000 cu ft/s18557,020 cubic metres per second248,000 cu ft/s
18066,830 cubic metres per second241,000 cu ft/s18168,090 cubic metres per second286,000 cu ft/s18265,800 cubic metres per second200,000 cu ft/s18369,740 cubic metres per second344,000 cu ft/s18466,750 cubic metres per second238,000 cu ft/s18565,390 cubic metres per second190,000 cu ft/s
18077,000 cubic metres per second250,000 cu ft/s18178,650 cubic metres per second305,000 cu ft/s18276,650 cubic metres per second235,000 cu ft/s18376,770 cubic metres per second239,000 cu ft/s18477,070 cubic metres per second250,000 cu ft/s18574,880 cubic metres per second172,000 cu ft/s
18085,600 cubic metres per second200,000 cu ft/s18186,920 cubic metres per second244,000 cu ft/s18288,140 cubic metres per second287,000 cu ft/s183810,440 cubic metres per second369,000 cu ft/s18485,620 cubic metres per second198,000 cu ft/s18585,580 cubic metres per second197,000 cu ft/s
18097,150 cubic metres per second252,000 cu ft/s18196,470 cubic metres per second228,000 cu ft/s18298,280 cubic metres per second292,000 cu ft/s18399,960 cubic metres per second352,000 cu ft/s18495,360 cubic metres per second189,000 cu ft/s18595,630 cubic metres per second199,000 cu ft/s
18108,430 cubic metres per second298,000 cu ft/s18206,560 cubic metres per second232,000 cu ft/s18307,790 cubic metres per second275,000 cu ft/s18405,560 cubic metres per second196,000 cu ft/s18507,360 cubic metres per second260,000 cu ft/s18607,220 cubic metres per second255,000 cu ft/s
6,901 (243,700)7,075 (249,900)6,973 (246,200)7,282 (257,200)6,482 (228,900)6,248 (220,600)
18615,980 cubic metres per second211,000 cu ft/s18718,860 cubic metres per second313,000 cu ft/s18818,320 cubic metres per second294,000 cu ft/s18915,440 cubic metres per second192,000 cu ft/s19015,570 cubic metres per second197,000 cu ft/s19115,120 cubic metres per second181,000 cu ft/s
18625,040 cubic metres per second178,000 cu ft/s18725,970 cubic metres per second211,000 cu ft/s18825,130 cubic metres per second181,000 cu ft/s18925,620 cubic metres per second198,000 cu ft/s19025,650 cubic metres per second200,000 cu ft/s19126,940 cubic metres per second245,000 cu ft/s
18633,340 cubic metres per second118,000 cu ft/s18735,150 cubic metres per second182,000 cu ft/s18837,590 cubic metres per second268,000 cu ft/s18935,710 cubic metres per second202,000 cu ft/s19035,490 cubic metres per second194,000 cu ft/s19136,410 cubic metres per second226,000 cu ft/s
18646,150 cubic metres per second217,000 cu ft/s18744,680 cubic metres per second165,000 cu ft/s18845,250 cubic metres per second185,000 cu ft/s18944,770 cubic metres per second168,000 cu ft/s19044,940 cubic metres per second174,000 cu ft/s19146,560 cubic metres per second232,000 cu ft/s
18655,690 cubic metres per second201,000 cu ft/s18755,360 cubic metres per second189,000 cu ft/s18855,430 cubic metres per second192,000 cu ft/s18956,240 cubic metres per second220,000 cu ft/s19056,100 cubic metres per second220,000 cu ft/s19159,540 cubic metres per second337,000 cu ft/s
18663,780 cubic metres per second133,000 cu ft/s18767,520 cubic metres per second266,000 cu ft/s18865,660 cubic metres per second200,000 cu ft/s18966,470 cubic metres per second228,000 cu ft/s19066,190 cubic metres per second219,000 cu ft/s19167,550 cubic metres per second267,000 cu ft/s
18676,350 cubic metres per second224,000 cu ft/s18776,660 cubic metres per second235,000 cu ft/s18875,340 cubic metres per second189,000 cu ft/s18977,700 cubic metres per second270,000 cu ft/s19076,770 cubic metres per second239,000 cu ft/s19176,410 cubic metres per second226,000 cu ft/s
18685,660 cubic metres per second200,000 cu ft/s18787,040 cubic metres per second249,000 cu ft/s18886,800 cubic metres per second240,000 cu ft/s18984,550 cubic metres per second161,000 cu ft/s19084,400 cubic metres per second160,000 cu ft/s19184,300 cubic metres per second150,000 cu ft/s
18695,370 cubic metres per second190,000 cu ft/s18798,300 cubic metres per second290,000 cu ft/s18896,530 cubic metres per second231,000 cu ft/s18994,500 cubic metres per second160,000 cu ft/s19095,590 cubic metres per second197,000 cu ft/s19197,410 cubic metres per second262,000 cu ft/s
18707,470 cubic metres per second264,000 cu ft/s18805,660 cubic metres per second200,000 cu ft/s18904,650 cubic metres per second164,000 cu ft/s19006,900 cubic metres per second240,000 cu ft/s19107,450 cubic metres per second263,000 cu ft/s19206,720 cubic metres per second237,000 cu ft/s
5,483 (193,600)6,520 (230,000)6,070 (214,000)5,790 (204,000)5,815 (205,400)6,770 (239,000)
Observed
19213,906 cubic metres per second137,900 cu ft/s19316,706 cubic metres per second236,800 cu ft/s19419,916 cubic metres per second350,200 cu ft/s19516,368 cubic metres per second224,900 cu ft/s19615,860 cubic metres per second207,000 cu ft/s19715,272 cubic metres per second186,200 cu ft/s
19226,530 cubic metres per second231,000 cu ft/s19326,181 cubic metres per second218,300 cu ft/s19427,266 cubic metres per second256,600 cu ft/s19525,850 cubic metres per second207,000 cu ft/s19626,628 cubic metres per second234,100 cu ft/s19726,160 cubic metres per second218,000 cu ft/s
19236,430 cubic metres per second227,000 cu ft/s19336,344 cubic metres per second224,000 cu ft/s19434,308 cubic metres per second152,100 cu ft/s19536,117 cubic metres per second216,000 cu ft/s19636,047 cubic metres per second213,500 cu ft/s19735,766 cubic metres per second203,600 cu ft/s
19246,700 cubic metres per second240,000 cu ft/s19345,644 cubic metres per second199,300 cu ft/s19447,190 cubic metres per second254,000 cu ft/s19546,168 cubic metres per second217,800 cu ft/s19645,259 cubic metres per second185,700 cu ft/s19747,258 cubic metres per second256,300 cu ft/s
19255,255 cubic metres per second185,600 cu ft/s19355,718 cubic metres per second201,900 cu ft/s19455,870 cubic metres per second207,000 cu ft/s19558,834 cubic metres per second312,000 cu ft/s19658,400 cubic metres per second300,000 cu ft/s19757,190 cubic metres per second254,000 cu ft/s
19268,144 cubic metres per second287,600 cu ft/s19366,392 cubic metres per second225,700 cu ft/s19464,684 cubic metres per second165,400 cu ft/s19567,100 cubic metres per second250,000 cu ft/s19667,954 cubic metres per second280,900 cu ft/s19766,567 cubic metres per second231,900 cu ft/s
19275,990 cubic metres per second212,000 cu ft/s19378,325 cubic metres per second294,000 cu ft/s19475,418 cubic metres per second191,300 cu ft/s19576,254 cubic metres per second220,900 cu ft/s19677,500 cubic metres per second260,000 cu ft/s19777,073 cubic metres per second249,800 cu ft/s
19285,005 cubic metres per second176,700 cu ft/s19386,867 cubic metres per second242,500 cu ft/s19486,357 cubic metres per second224,500 cu ft/s19586,340 cubic metres per second224,000 cu ft/s19685,660 cubic metres per second200,000 cu ft/s19787,120 cubic metres per second251,000 cu ft/s
19295,330 cubic metres per second188,000 cu ft/s19396,310 cubic metres per second223,000 cu ft/s19494,301 cubic metres per second151,900 cu ft/s19595,375 cubic metres per second189,800 cu ft/s19697,710 cubic metres per second272,000 cu ft/s19797,747 cubic metres per second273,600 cu ft/s
19305,197 cubic metres per second183,500 cu ft/s19409,533 cubic metres per second336,700 cu ft/s19505,130 cubic metres per second181,000 cu ft/s19606,514 cubic metres per second230,000 cu ft/s19709,602 cubic metres per second339,100 cu ft/s19808,767 cubic metres per second309,600 cu ft/s
5,888 (207,900)6,802 (240,200)6,044 (213,400)6,492 (229,300)7,062 (249,400)6,892 (243,400)
19818,172 cubic metres per second288,600 cu ft/s19916,274 cubic metres per second221,600 cu ft/s20016,304.3 cubic metres per second222,630 cu ft/s20115,303 cubic metres per second187,300 cu ft/s20215,998 cubic metres per second211,800 cu ft/s
19826,700 cubic metres per second240,000 cu ft/s19925,710.8 cubic metres per second201,670 cu ft/s20026,837.1 cubic metres per second241,450 cu ft/s20125,053 cubic metres per second178,400 cu ft/s20224,373 cubic metres per second154,400 cu ft/s
19835,543 cubic metres per second195,700 cu ft/s19934,873 cubic metres per second172,100 cu ft/s20035,021 cubic metres per second177,300 cu ft/s20137,164 cubic metres per second253,000 cu ft/s20236,665 cubic metres per second235,400 cu ft/s
19846,325 cubic metres per second223,400 cu ft/s19946,031.8 cubic metres per second213,010 cu ft/s20046,524 cubic metres per second230,400 cu ft/s20147,446 cubic metres per second263,000 cu ft/s20245,776.4 cubic metres per second203,990 cu ft/s
19856,449 cubic metres per second227,700 cu ft/s19956,223.7 cubic metres per second219,790 cu ft/s20058,711 cubic metres per second307,600 cu ft/s20156,138 cubic metres per second216,800 cu ft/s20254,091.4 cubic metres per second144,490 cu ft/s
19866,257 cubic metres per second221,000 cu ft/s19967,035.8 cubic metres per second248,470 cu ft/s20068,428 cubic metres per second297,600 cu ft/s20166,465 cubic metres per second228,300 cu ft/s2026
19876,619 cubic metres per second233,700 cu ft/s19976,684.2 cubic metres per second236,050 cu ft/s20075,626 cubic metres per second198,700 cu ft/s20175,202 cubic metres per second183,700 cu ft/s2027
19886,383 cubic metres per second225,400 cu ft/s19986,804.6 cubic metres per second240,300 cu ft/s20085,909 cubic metres per second208,700 cu ft/s20186,487.8 cubic metres per second229,110 cu ft/s2028
19895,448 cubic metres per second192,400 cu ft/s19997,951.5 cubic metres per second280,800 cu ft/s20096,492 cubic metres per second229,300 cu ft/s20195,579 cubic metres per second197,000 cu ft/s2029
19904,194 cubic metres per second148,100 cu ft/s20006,580.6 cubic metres per second232,390 cu ft/s20109,598 cubic metres per second339,000 cu ft/s20204,893.5 cubic metres per second172,810 cu ft/s2030
6,209 (219,300)6,417 (226,600)6,945 (245,300)5,973 (210,900)5,381 (190,000)
Multiannual average discharge 1742 to 2025: ~ 6,500 m3/s (230,000 cu ft/s)
Source:[34][35][36][37][30][31]

Tributaries

Main article: List of tributaries of the Danube

The land drained by the Danube extends into many other countries. Many Danubian tributaries are important rivers in their own right, navigable by barges and other shallow-draught boats. From its source to its outlet into the Black Sea, its main tributaries are (as they enter):

  1. Iller (entering at Ulm)
  2. Lech
  3. Altmühl (entering at Kelheim)
  4. Naab (entering at Regensburg)
  5. Regen (entering at Regensburg)
  6. Isar
  7. Inn (entering at Passau)
  8. Ilz (entering at Passau)
  9. Enns (entering at Enns)
  10. Morava (entering near Devín Castle)
  11. Rába (entering at Győr)
  12. Váh (entering at Komárno)
  13. Hron (entering at Štúrovo)
  14. Ipeľ
  15. Sió
  16. Drava (entering near Osijek)
  17. Vuka (entering at Vukovar)
18. Tisza (entering near Titel)
19. Sava (entering at Belgrade)
20. Timiș (entering at Pančevo)
21. Great Morava (entering near Smederevo)
22. Mlava (entering near Kostolac)
23. Karaš (entering near Banatska Palanka)
24. Jiu (entering at Bechet)
25. Iskar (entering near Gigen)
26. Olt (entering at Turnu Măgurele)
27. Osam (entering near Nikopol, Bulgaria)
28. Yantra (entering near Svishtov)
29. Argeș (entering at Oltenița)
30. Ialomița
31. Siret (entering near Galați)
32. Prut (entering near Galați)

Cities and towns

Main article: List of cities and towns on the river Danube

The Danube flows through many cities, including four national capitals (shown below in bold), more than any other river in the world. Ordered from source to mouth they are:

Islands

Further information: List of islands in the Danube

Sectioning

  • Upper Section: From spring to Devín Gate, at the border of Austria and Slovakia. Danube remains a characteristic mountain river until Passau, with average bottom gradient 0.12% (1200 ppm), from Passau to Devín Gate the gradient lessens to 0.06% (600 ppm).
  • Middle Section: From Devín Gate to Iron Gate, at the border of Serbia and Romania. The riverbed widens and the average bottom gradient becomes only 0.006% (60 ppm).
  • Lower Section: From Iron Gate to Pătlăgeanca, with average gradient as little as 0.003% (30 ppm).
  • Delta: From Pătlăgeanca to Sulina, where the Danube meets the Black Sea. The river splits into three main distributaries.[38]

Modern navigation

The Danube is navigable by ocean ships from the Black Sea to Brăila in Romania (the maritime river sector), and further on by river ships to Kelheim, Bavaria, Germany; smaller craft can navigate further upstream to Ulm, Württemberg, Germany. About 60 of its tributaries are also navigable.

Since the completion of the German Rhine–Main–Danube Canal in 1992, the river has been part of a trans-European waterway from Rotterdam on the North Sea to Sulina on the Black Sea, a distance of 3,500 km (2,200 mi). In 1994 the Danube was declared one of ten Pan-European transport corridors, routes in Central and Eastern Europe that required major investment over the following ten to fifteen years.[citation needed] The amount of goods transported on the Danube increased to about 100 million tons in 1987. In 1999, transport on the river was made difficult by the NATO bombing of three bridges in Serbia during the Kosovo War. Clearance of the resulting debris was completed in 2002, and a temporary pontoon bridge that hampered navigation was removed in 2005.[citation needed]

At the Iron Gate, the Danube flows through a gorge that forms part of the boundary between Serbia and Romania; it contains the Iron Gate I Hydroelectric Power Station dam, followed at about 60 km (37 mi) downstream (outside the gorge) by the Iron Gate II Hydroelectric Power Station. On 13 April 2006, a record peak discharge at Iron Gate Dam reached 15,400 m3/s (540,000 cu ft/s).

There are three artificial waterways built on the Danube: the Danube-Tisa-Danube Canal (DTD) in the Banat and Bačka regions (Vojvodina, northern province of Serbia); the 64 km (40 mi) Danube-Black Sea Canal, between Cernavodă and Constanța (Romania) finished in 1984, shortens the distance to the Black Sea by 400 km (250 mi); the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal is about 171 km (106 mi), finished in 1992, linking the North Sea to the Black Sea.[39] A Danube-Aegean canal has been proposed.[40]

Cruising on the Danube is a popular sightseeing activity, especially between Passau, Germany, to Budapest, Hungary.[41]

Piracy

In 2010–12, shipping companies, especially from Ukraine, claimed that their vessels suffered from "regular pirate attacks" on the Serbian and the Romanian stretches of the Danube.[42][43][44] However, the transgressions may not be considered acts of piracy, as defined according to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, but rather instances of "river robbery".[45]

On the other hand, media reports say the crews on transport ships often steal and sell their own cargo and then blame the plundering on "pirates", and the alleged attacks are not piracy but small-time contraband theft along the river.[46]

Danube Delta

Main article: Danube Delta

The Danube Delta (Romanian: Delta Dunării ˈdelta ˈdunərij; Ukrainian: Дельта Дунаю, Del'ta Dunayu) is the largest river delta in the European Union. The greater part of the Danube Delta lies in Romania (Tulcea county), while its northern part, on the left bank of the Chilia arm, is situated in Ukraine (Odesa Oblast). The approximate surface is 4,152 km2 (1,603 sq mi), of which 3,446 km2 (1,331 sq mi) are in Romania. If one includes the lagoons of Razim-Sinoe (1,015 km2 (392 sq mi) of which 865 km2 (334 sq mi) water surface), which are located south of the delta proper, but are related to it geologically and ecologically (their combined territory is part of the World Heritage Site), the total area of the Danube Delta reaches 5,165 km2 (1,994 sq mi).

The Danube Delta is also the best-preserved river delta in Europe, a UNESCO World Heritage Site (since 1991) and a Ramsar Site. Its lakes and marshes support 45 freshwater fish species. Its wetlands support vast flocks of migratory birds of over 300 species, including the endangered pygmy cormorant (Phalacrocorax pygmaeus). These are threatened by rival canalization and drainage schemes such as the Bystroye Canal.[47]

International cooperation

Ecology and environment

Main article: International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River

The International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River (ICPDR) is an organization that consists of 14 member states (Germany, Austria, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Hungary, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania, Moldova, Montenegro, and Ukraine) and the European Union. The commission, established in 1998, deals with the whole Danube river basin, which includes tributaries and groundwater resources. Its goal is to implement the Danube River Protection Convention by promoting and coordinating sustainable and equitable water management, including conservation, improvement, and rational use of waters and the implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive and the Danube Strategy.

Main article: Danube Commission

The Danube Commission is concerned with the maintenance and improvement of the river's navigation conditions. It was established in 1948 by seven countries bordering the river. Members include representatives from Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, Germany, Hungary, Moldova, Slovakia, Romania, Russia, Ukraine, and Serbia; it meets regularly twice a year. It also convenes groups of experts to consider items provided for in the commission's working plans.

The commission dates to the Paris Conferences of 1856 and 1921, which established for the first time an international regime to safeguard free navigation on the Danube. Today the Commission include riparian and non-riparian states.

Geology

Although the headwaters of the Danube are relatively small today, geologically, the Danube is much older than the Rhine, with which its catchment area competes in today's southern Germany. This has a few interesting geological complications. Since the Rhine flows north towards the North Sea, a continental divide beginning at Piz Lunghin divides large parts of southern Germany, which is sometimes referred to as the European Watershed.

Before the last ice age in the Pleistocene, the Rhine started at the southwestern tip of the Black Forest, while the waters from the Alps that today feed the Rhine were carried east by the so-called Urdonau (original Danube). Parts of this ancient river's bed, which was much larger than today's Danube, can still be seen in (now waterless) canyons in today's landscape of the Swabian Alb. The erosion of the Upper Rhine valley led to stream capture; waters from the Alps changed their direction and began feeding the Rhine. Today's upper Danube is thus an underfit stream.

Since the Swabian Alb is largely shaped of porous limestone, and since the Rhine's level is much lower than the Danube's, today subsurface rivers carry much water from the Danube to the Rhine. On many days in the summer, when the Danube carries little water, it completely sinks into these underground channels at two locations in the Swabian Alb, which are referred to as the Donauversickerung (Danube Sink). Most of this water resurfaces only 12 km (7.5 mi) south at the Aachtopf, Germany's wellspring with the highest flow, an average of 8,500 L/s, north of Lake Constance—thus feeding the Rhine. The European Water Divide applies only for those waters that pass beyond this point, which only occurs during the days of the year when the Danube carries enough water to survive the sinkholes in the Donauversickerung.

Since such large volumes of underground water erode much of the surrounding limestone, it is predicted that the Danube upper course will one day disappear entirely in favor of the Rhine, an event called stream capturing.

The hydrological parameters of Danube are regularly monitored in Croatia at Batina, Dalj, Vukovar and Ilok.[48]

History

The Danube basin was the site of some of the earliest human cultures. The Danubian Neolithic cultures include the Linear Pottery cultures of the mid-Danube basin. Many sites of the sixth-to-third millennium BCE Vinča culture (Vinča, Serbia), are sited along the Danube. The third millennium BCE Vučedol culture (from the Vučedol site near Vukovar, Croatia) is famous for its ceramics.

Darius the Great, king of Persia, crossed the river in the late 6th century BCE to invade European Scythia and to subdue the Scythians.

Alexander the Great defeated the Triballian king Syrmus and the northern barbarian Thracian and Illyrian tribes by advancing from Macedonia as far as the Danube in 336 BCE.

Under the Romans, the Danube formed the border of the Empire with the tribes to the north almost from its source to its mouth. At the same time, it was a route for the transport of troops and the supply of settlements downstream. From 37 CE to the reign of the Emperor Valentinian I (364–375) the Danubian Limes was the northeastern border of the Empire, with occasional interruptions such as the fall of the Danubian Limes in 259. The crossing of the Danube into Dacia was achieved by the Imperium Romanum, first in two battles in 102 and then in 106 after the construction of a bridge in 101 near the garrison town of Drobeta at the Iron Gate. This victory over Dacia under Decebalus enabled the Province of Dacia to be created, but in 271 it was abandoned by emperor Aurelian.

Avars used the river as their southeastern border in the 6th century.

Ancient cultural perspectives of the lower Danube

Part of the rivers Danubius or Istros was also known as (together with the Black Sea) the Okeanos in ancient times, being called the Okeanos Potamos (Okeanos River). The lower Danube was also called the Keras Okeanoio (Gulf or Horn of Okeanos) in the Argonautica by Apollonius Rhodos (Argon. IV. 282).

At the end of the Okeanos Potamos, is the holy island of Alba (Leuke, Pytho Nisi, Isle of Snakes), sacred to the Pelasgian (and later, Greek) Apollo, greeting the sun rising in the east. Hecateus Abderitas refers to Apollo's island from the region of the Hyperboreans, in the Okeanos. It was on Leuke, in one version of his legend, that the hero Achilles was buried (to this day, one of the mouths of the Danube is called Chilia). Old Romanian folk songs recount a white monastery on a white island with nine priests.[49]

Rivalry and trade along the Danube

Between the late 14th and late 19th centuries, the Ottoman Empire competed first with the Kingdom of Serbia, Second Bulgarian Empire, Kingdom of Hungary, Principality of Wallachia, Principality of Moldavia and later with the Habsburg monarchy, Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and Russian Empire for controlling the Danube (طونه, Tuna in Turkish), which became the northern border of the Ottoman Empire for centuries. Many of the Ottoman–Hungarian Wars (1366–1526) and Ottoman–Habsburg wars (1526–1791) were fought along the river.

The most important wars of the Ottoman Empire along the Danube include the Battle of Nicopolis (1396), the Siege of Belgrade (1456), the Battle of Mohács (1526), the first Turkish Siege of Vienna (1529), the Siege of Esztergom (1543), the Long War (1591–1606), the Battle of Vienna (1683), the Great Turkish War (1683–1699), the Crimean War (1853–1856) and the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878).

In the 19th century the beaver was hunted to extinction along the Danube in Bavaria.[50] The Beluga sturgeon population also collapsed, Danube sturgeons had been commercially exploited for meat and caviar since the 5th century BC. River regulation schemes commenced in the 19th century and continued into the 20th century. The Danube river has a total of 18 major dams, including Melk and Freudenau in Vienna.[51]

Second World War

During the 2011 renovation of the Margaret Bridge, Budapest, human remains were discovered. The mostly Jewish remains were victims of the far-right Arrow Cross Party, who briefly governed Hungary from 1944.[52]

Economics

Drinking water

Along its course, the Danube is a source of drinking water for about 20 million people.[53][54] In Baden-Württemberg, Germany, almost 30 percent (as of 2004) of the water for the area between Stuttgart, Bad Mergentheim, Aalen and Alb-Donau (district) comes from purified water of the Danube. Other cities such as Ulm and Passau also use some water from the Danube.

In Austria and Hungary, most water is drawn from ground and spring sources, and only in rare cases is water from the Danube used. Most states also find it too difficult to clean the water because of extensive pollution; only parts of Romania where the water is cleaner still obtain drinking water from the Danube on a regular basis.[55]

In the 19th century, the Danube was an important waterway but was, as The Times of London put it, "annually swept by ice that will lift a large ship out of the water or cut her in two as if she were a carrot."[56]

Today, as "Corridor VII" of the European Union, the Danube is an important transport route. Since the opening of the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal, the river connects the Port of Rotterdam and the industrial centers of Western Europe with the Black Sea and, also, through the Danube – Black Sea Canal, with the Port of Constanța.

The waterway is designed for large-scale inland vessels (110 × 11.45 m) but it can carry much larger vessels on most of its course. The Danube has been partly canalized in Germany (5 locks) and Austria (10 locks). Proposals to build a number of new locks to improve navigation have not progressed, due in part to environmental concerns.

Downstream from the Freudenau locks in Vienna, canalization of the Danube was limited to the Gabčíkovo dam and locks near Bratislava and the two double Iron Gate locks in the border stretch of the Danube between Serbia and Romania. These locks have larger dimensions. Downstream of the Iron Gate, the river is free flowing all the way to the Black Sea, a distance of more than 860 kilometres (530 mi).

The Danube connects with the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal at Kelheim, with the Donaukanal in Vienna, and with the Danube–Black Sea Canal at Cernavodă.

Apart from a couple of secondary navigable branches, the only major navigable rivers linked to the Danube are the Drava, Sava and Tisa. In Serbia, a canal network also connects to the river; the network, known as the Danube–Tisa–Danube Canals, links sections downstream.

In the Austrian and German sections of the Danube, a type of flat-bottomed boat called a Zille was developed for use along the river. Zillen are still used today for fishing, ferrying, and other transport of goods and people in this area.

Fishing

The importance of fishing on the Danube, which was critical in the Middle Ages, has declined dramatically. Some fishermen are still active at certain points on the river, and the Danube Delta still has an important industry. However, some of the river's resources have been managed in an environmentally unsustainable manner in the past, leading to damage by pollution, alterations to the channel, and major infrastructure development, including large hydropower dams.[57]

The sturgeon stocks associated with the Danube river basin have, over the centuries, formed the basis of a large and significant commercial fishery, renowned throughout the world. The construction of the dams, besides overfishing and river pollution, has a significant role in sturgeon population decline because it creates a barrier for fish migratory species that usually spawn in the upper parts of the river.[58] The spawning areas of migratory fishes species has been dramatically reduced by the construction of hydropower and navigation systems at Iron Gates I (1974) and Iron Gates II (1984).[59] The initial design of these dams has not included any fish passage facility.[60] The possibility of building a human-made fish pass enabling migration for fish species including the sturgeon, is currently under review by projects such as We Pass.[61]

The Upper Danube ecoregion alone has about 60 fish species and the Lower Danube–Dniester ecoregion has about twice as many.[62] Among these are an exceptionally high diversity of sturgeon, a total of six species (beluga, Russian sturgeon, bastard sturgeon, sterlet, starry sturgeon and European sea sturgeon), but these are all threatened and have largely–or entirely in the case of the European sea sturgeon–disappeared from the river.[62] The huchen, one of the largest species of salmon, is endemic to the Danube basin, but has been introduced elsewhere by humans.[63]

Tourism

Important tourist and natural spots along the Danube include the Wachau Valley, the Nationalpark Donau-Auen in Austria, Gemenc in Hungary, the Naturpark Obere Donau in Germany, Kopački rit in Croatia, Iron Gate in Serbia and Romania, the Danube Delta in Romania, and the Srebarna Nature Reserve in Bulgaria.

Also, leisure and travel cruises on the river are of significance. Besides the often frequented route between Vienna and Budapest, some ships even go from Passau in Germany to the Danube Delta and back. During the peak season, more than 70 cruise liners are in use on the river, while the traffic-free upper parts can only be discovered with canoes or boats.

The Danube region is not only culturally and historically of importance, but also important for the regional tourism industry due to its fascinating landmarks and sights. With its well established infrastructure regarding cycling, hiking, and travel possibilities, the region along the Danube attracts every year an international clientele. In Austria alone, there are more than 14 million overnight stays and about 6.5 million arrivals per year.[64]

The Danube Banks in Budapest are a part of Unesco World Heritage sites, they can be viewed from a number of sightseeing cruises offered in the city.

The Danube Bend is also a popular tourist destination.

Danube Bike Trail

The Danube Bike Trail (also called Danube Cycle Path or the Donauradweg) is a bicycle trail along the river. Especially the parts through Germany and Austria are very popular, which makes it one of the 10 most popular bike trails in Germany.[65]

The Danube Bike Trail starts at the origin of the Danube and ends where the river flows into the Black Sea. It is divided into four sections:

  1. Donaueschingen–Passau (559 km or 347 mi)
  2. Passau–Vienna (340 km or 210 mi)
  3. Vienna–Budapest (306 km or 190 mi)
  4. Budapest–Black Sea (1,670 km or 1,040 mi)

Sultans Trail

The Sultans Trail is a hiking trail that runs along the river between Vienna and Smederevo in Serbia. From there the Sultans Trail leaves the Danube, terminating in Istanbul. Sections along the river are as follows.

  1. Vienna–Budapest (323 km or 201 mi)
  2. Budapest–Smederevo (595 km or 370 mi)

Donausteig

In 2010, the Donausteig, a hiking trail from Passau to Grein, was opened. It is 450 km (280 mi) long and it is divided into 23 stages. The route passes through five Bavarian and 40 Austrian communities. A landscape and viewpoints, which are along the river, are the highlights of the Donausteig.[66]

The Route of Emperors and Kings

The Route of Emperors and Kings is an international touristic route leading from Regensburg to Budapest, calling in Passau, Linz and Vienna.[67] The international consortium ARGE Die Donau-Straße der Kaiser und Könige, comprising ten tourism organisations, shipping companies, and cities, strives for the conservation and touristic development of the Danube region.[64]

In medieval Regensburg, with its maintained old town, stone bridge and cathedral, the Route of Emperors and Kings begins. It continues to Engelhartszell, with the only Trappist monastery in Austria. Further highlight-stops along the Danube, include the "Schlögener Schlinge", the city of Linz, which was European Capital of Culture in 2009 with its contemporary art richness, the Melk Abbey, the university city of Krems and the cosmopolitan city of Vienna. Before the Route of Emperors and Kings ends, you pass Bratislava and Budapest, the latter of which was seen as the twin town of Vienna during the times of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Since ancient Roman times, famous emperors and their retinue traveled on and along the Danube and used the river for travel and transportation. While traveling on the mainland was quite exhausting, most people preferred to travel by ship on the Danube. So the Route of Emperors and Kings was the setting for many important historical events, which characterize the Danube up until today.

The route got its name from the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I of Barbarossa and the crusaders as well as from Richard I of England who had been jailed in the Dürnstein Castle, which is situated above the Danube. The most imperial journeys throughout time were those of the Habsburg family. Once crowned in Frankfurt, the emperors ruled from Vienna and also held in Regensburg the Perpetual Diet of Regensburg. Many famous castles, palaces, residences, and state-run convents were built by the Habsburger along the river. Nowadays they still remind us of the bold architecture of the "Donaubarock".

Today, people can not only travel by boat on the Danube but also by train, by bike on the Danube Bike Trail or walk on the "Donausteig" and visit the UNESCO World Heritage cities of Regensburg, Wachau and Vienna.[68]

Important national parks

In folklore and literature

  • The Danube is mentioned in the title of a famous waltz by Austrian composer Johann Strauss, The Blue Danube Waltz (On the Beautiful Blue Danube). This piece is well known across the world and is also used widely as a lullaby. The Waves of the Danube (Romanian: Valurile Dunării) is a waltz by the Romanian composer Iosif Ivanovici (1845–1902); as the Anniversary Song, it has been performed by many vocalists, such as Al Jolson, Rosemary Clooney, Vera Lynn, Tom Jones, and countless others. It is most commonly known as the Anniversary Waltz, though that is actually a different song and melody. Joe Zawinul wrote a symphony about the Danube called Stories of the Danube. It was performed for the first time at the 1993 Bruckner festival, at Linz.
  • The Danube figures prominently in the Bulgarian National Anthem, as a symbolic representation of the country's natural beauty. In Lithuanian folklore songs, the appearance of Danube (Dunojus, Dunojėlis) is more common than the appearance of the longest Lithuanian river Neman.
  • The German and Austrian tradition of landscape painting, the Danube school, developed in the 16th century Danube valley by artists who worked autonomously.[69]
  • One of Claudio Magris's masterpieces is called Danube (ISBN 1-86046-823-3). The book, published in 1986, is a large cultural-historical essay, in which Magris travels the Danube from the first sources to the delta, tracing the European ethnic and cultural heritage, literary and ideological history.
  • The Great Danube Adventure was published in 1838 as epic travel diary.
  • Jules Verne's The Danube Pilot (1908) (Le Pilote du Danube) depicts the adventures of fisherman Serge Ladko as he travels down the river.
  • Algernon Blackwood's short story "The Willows" mostly takes place on the river.

See also

Further reading

  • Lóczy, Dénes. The Danube: Morphology, Evolution, and Environmental Issues. In Avijit Gupta, ed., Large Rivers: Geomorphology and Management. 2nd Ed. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley-Blackwell, 2022, pp. 335–367. ISBN 9781119412601
  • Sommerwerk, Nike, Jurg Bloesch, Christian Baumgartner, Thomas Bittl, Dubravka Cerba, Bela Csanyi, Grigore Davideanu, Martin Dokulil, Georg Frank, Iulia Grecu, Thomas Hein, Vladimir Kovac, Ilulian Nichersu, Tibor Mikuska, Karin Pall, Momir Paunovic, Carmen Postolache, Maja Rakovic, Cristina Sandu, Martin Schneider-Jacoby, Katharina Stefke, Klement Tockner, Ion Toderas, and Laurentia Ungureanu. The Danube River Basin. In Klement Tockner, Christiane Zarfl, and Christopher T. Robinson (eds.), Rivers of Europe, 2nd Ed. Cambridge, MA: Elsevier, 2022, pp. 83–181. ISBN 978-0-08-102612-0

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Notes

  1. ^ Flow sequence from the source confluence in Germany to final discharge into the Black Sea via the Danube Delta in Romania and Ukraine.
    See also Contents > Geography.
  2. ^ Note that the port city of Vidin in Bulgaria is downstream from the town of Moldova Nouă in Romania.

Sources

  • Noble, Gordon & Evans, Nicholas (2022). The Picts: Scourge of Rome, Rulers of the North. Birlinn. ISBN 978-1780277783.
  • Roberts, Alice (2015). The Celts: Search for a Civilisation. Heron Books. ISBN 978-1784293321.

Further reading

  • Mevissen, Robert Shields. The Danube Empire: An Environmental History of Habsburg State Building and Civic Engagement (2025)